
Glass. 
Book. 



10 .. 
__ — _ 



Oopightlf. 



- ; 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



NATURAL METHOD 


IN 


ENGLISH 


A Complete Grammar 


By G. H. Bell 


Author of "Guide to Correct Language," 


"Rhetoric," "English Literature," etc. 


Revised by W. E. Howell 

i 


REVIEW AND HERALD PUBLISHING ASSN. 


Washington, D. C. 


SOUTH BEND, IND. NEW YORK, N. Y. 








PUBLISHERS' NOTE 

In less than three months from the time it left the press, 
the first edition of this work was entirely exhausted. The 
favor accorded to it by the public far exceeded the most san- 
guine expectations of the publishers. Leading educational men 
hailed it as a grand step in the right direction. Experienced 
teachers had been anxiously wishing for the development of 
just such a method. Those who are using the book in their 
schools find it an invaluable aid in making their instructions 
in this branch interesting, clear, and practical. The revised 
edition has been brought out at. the earnest solicitation of 
hundreds of educators who thoroughly appreciate the natural 
method of teaching and who desire some features of the book 
brought more up to date. In this connection the publishers 
desire to express their grateful acknowledgments to the teach- 
ers and educators whose verdict of approval has contributed 
so largely to« the success of the work. 

The Publishers. 



COPYRIGHT 1 88 1 BY G. H. BELL 



COPYRIGHT 19 1 5 BY 
REVIEW AND HERALD PUBLISHING ASSOCIATION 



DGT -6 1915 

©CI.A411827 



J J^$ I 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

This book, as its title indicates, is an attempt to present a 
natural method of teaching the English language. The author 
does not claim to have fully reached the end in view ; but from 
the success which has attended the use of these lessons in 
manuscript form, it has been thought that their publication 
might aid in the promotion of rational teaching, and thereby 
lead to a truer appreciation and better use of our language. 

The peculiarities of the method may be briefly stated as 
follows : — 

1. The language is developed, not with special reference 
to the parts of speech, but so as to meet the demands of 
thought, — first showing a need, and then how that need is sup- 
plied. For example, we think of objects, and in speaking of 
them must name them; we think of the qualities and actions 
of objects, and in expressing such thoughts must have words 
to denote qualities and actions ; we think zvhcn, where, how, 
and ivhy certain actions took place, or certain conditions ex- 
isted, and must have words for the expression of such thoughts. 
This plan is adhered to, not only in the introductory lessons, 
but throughout the work. 

2. The examples are so selected and arranged that the pu- 
pil, from the first, is able to understand and explain the use of 
every word in them ; for, with slight exceptions, the examples 
of each lesson contain nothing new but the special truth to be 
taught in that lesson. This work of selecting and arranging, 
as experienced teachers will realize, has been no light task. 

3. Instead of stating principles first, and giving examples 
afterwards, the new truth to be taught is drawn from the ex- 
amples themselves. 

4. The analysis of sentences is logical rather than gram- 
matical, dealing primarily with the thought; and with con- 
structions, as mere conveniences for expressing the thought. 
Technical terms are, in the main, avoided ; and the analysis 
is soon made general by dropping its minuter parts. Thus the 
energetic teacher will be enabled to prevent his pupils from 
losing the thought in the intricacies of grammatical analysis, 

[3] 



4 AUTHOR S PREFACE 

and to make the thought better understood and appreciated 
than it could be by the most careful reading without analysis. 
This is of the utmost importance ; for how often the pupil 
becomes wholly oblivious to the meaning of a sentence while 
giving its grammatical analysis ! 

5. An interest is awakened, not only by noticing how ad- 
mirably the different constructions are adapted to the various 
modifications of thought, but also by observing the peculiar 
fitness, force, and beauty of rhetorical figures. The name of 
the figure, being in itself of little consequence, is made wholly 
incidental ; but the figure is so explained as to show why it 
is appropriate, and what gives it its chief charm. Thus the 
learner is given an early introduction to the beauties, as well 
as to the strength and adaptability, of our language. 

6. The essential rules of syntax have been so combined 
with the parsing as to lose their formality, without any diminu- 
tion of their force. But few examples of false syntax have 
been given, for the reason that, in general, more benefit is de- 
rived from admiring the good than from criticizing the bad. 

7. The ultimate aim of the author has been to cultivate 
such a love for the study of language as will finally lead to 
the formation of a correct taste. This accomplished, the best 
practical results are sure to follow ; but without this, rules and 
definitions will prove of little value. Even the slightest gram- 
matical inaccuracies should, of course, be avoided; yet lan- 
guage may be free from all these, and still fail of its end, — 
the clear and forcible expression of thought. In language, as 
in other things, effectiveness should be regarded as the highest 
proof of excellence. 

The writer would take this opportunity to express his appre- 
ciation of the many excellent books on English grammar ; and 
as he has rejoiced in the success of other authors, and enjoyed 
the fruit of their labors, he confidently expects that they will 
be the first to discover and commend any excellences which 
this book may contain. At the solicitation of many teachers 
and students, it is submitted to the public, with the hope that 
upon thorough trial it will be found to meet at least some 
wants that have long been felt G. H. Bell. 



REVISER'S PREFACE 

To revise the work of a master is at once a serious and a 
delicate task. Two chief inducements led the reviser to under- 
take it; one was his keen appreciation of the superior merits 
of the method and the matter presented in this book, the other 
was his deep interest to see grammar become a delightsome 
rather tflan an irksome study to our boys and girls. The task 
has proved a most pleasurable one; and it is the confident be- 
lief of the reviser that if the teacher will take pains to acquaint 
himself thoroughly with the spirit and the method of instruc- 
tion unfolded in this book, his effort to teach our youth the 
correct forms and usages of common speech will be more 
enjoyable and more fruitful than heretofore. 

The consensus of opinion gathered from about five hundred 
letters of inquiry sent out to teachers of experience, was that 
the entire field of grammar be covered in one volume rather 
than in a series, and that the revision be based upon the original 
book published by the author. In this early edition Professor 
Bell was at his best, being in the prime of his teaching ex- 
perience, and unhampered in carrying out fully his own ideas 
in teaching the elements of our mother tongue. While bring- 
ing some features of the book more fully up to date, the re- 
viser has sought earnestly to retain the spirit of the " Bell 
method " throughout, and has been stimulated in this by the 
solicitude of its friends. The merits of the method have been 
well stated in the Author's Preface, which should be carefully 
read and reread. 

Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the fact that the 
aim of this method is to keep technical work in the background 
as far as possible, and to put foremost the study and expres- 
sion of thought. Formality and monotony must be studiously 
avoided. It is for this reason that the exercise matter is drawn 
from a great variety of sources, even in the same lesson, and 
that the student is often sent to good books or magazines for 
his selections, and is taught 10 observe the language and life 
of others about him when required to compose sentences of 
his own. It is for this reason, too, that the sentences in a 

[51 



6 REVISER S PREFACE 

given exercise often vary from the particular theme of the 
lesson, and illustrate something gone over previously. An oc- 
casional composition of a simple nature, and frequent reviews, 
serve also to give variety and keep. up interest. The teacher 
should feel a responsibility to stimulate thought on a chosen 
topic before assigning a composition or the writing of sen- 
tences required in the seat work. Writing is a much easier 
task when the mind is filled with fresh, interesting thoughts; 
and it has the advantage of not being written for its own sake, 
but to tell something. 

No system of diagraming has been introduced, and no sys- 
tem is recommended, since it would be out of keeping with 
the genius of the natural method; but certain simple devices 
that do not break up the sentence nor disturb its natural order, 
are made use of here and there to aid the student to grasp the 
unitary elements in the structure of the sentence. 

The Appendix has been somewhat extended, and should be 
carefully examined by the teacher that he may make the best 
use of its contents. Few formal definitions are given in the 
body of the book, but they are developed and classified in 
Appendix A, as are also Laws of Form in Appendix B. These, 
together with the Classification of Parts of Speech, in Appendix 
I, and the summary of rules for the Use of Capital Letters 
and for Punctuation, in Appendixes G and H, afford excellent 
material for reviews and for binding off the pupil's knowledge 
of what he has studied. Two complete Conjugations and 
lists of Irregular Verbs and Gender forms, are valuable for 
reference, while a brief presentation of Letter Writing closes 
the book, and should not be neglected. 

It is too much, perhaps, to expect that this first edition of 
the revision has gone through without error. It will therefore 
be regarded by the reviser and publishers as an act of friend- 
ship if teachers will call attention to any error they may 
discover in using the book. 

Acknowledgment is hereby made to many friends for help- 
ful suggestions offered during the work of revision. 

W. E. Howell. 
Washington, D, C, August i, ipi 5. 



CONTENTS 



DISTINGUISHING OBJECTS.— (NOUNS) 

NECESSITY FOR NAMES 
LESSON PAGE 

i. — The Study of Language 17 

2. — Naming and Classifying Objects 18 

3. — Naming the Parts of Things 20 

4. — Parts of the Human Body. — First Steps in Composition. ... 21 

5. — Geographical Names 23 

COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS 

6. — Class Names and Individual Names 24 

7. — Initial Letters 26 

8. — Proper Names Consisting of Two or More Words 27 

NUMBER 

9. — Number 28 

10. — Collective Nouns 30 

11. — Formation of the Plural 31 

12. — Nouns Ending in Y and in 33 

13. — Nouns Ending in F and in Fe 36 

14. — Peculiarities in Number. — Lists for Reference 37 

GENDER 

15. — Gender 42 

16. — Peculiarities in Gender 44 

17. — Review Exercise . 46 

18. — Review Exercise 47 

QUALITIES AND CONDITIONS OF OBJECTS.— (QUALIFYING 

ADJECTIVES) 

19. — Qualities 49 

20. — Classifying the Qualities of Objects 50 

21. — Showing How to Write a Composition 51 

22. — Predicating and Assuming Qualities 52 

23. — Subject and Predicate 53 

24. — The Copula 55 

25. — Analysis 56 

[7] 



6 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON PAGE 

26. — Qualities Assumed and Predicated 57 

27. — Abstract Nouns 58 

28. — Parsing Nouns and Adjectives % 59 

29. — Analysis and Parsing 61 

ACTIONS PREDICATED.— (VERBS) 

30. — Actions Performed and Received 62 

31. — Action Predicated 63 

32. — Action Predicated 64 

33. — Quality and Action 65 

34. — Qualities and Actions of Birds . 65 

35. — Review Exercise 66 

ALLUDING TO OBJECTS.— (PRONOUNS) 

36. — Objects Alluded To 67 

37.— Persons Alluded To , 69 

38. — Parsing Pronouns 70 

DISTINGUISHING OBJECTS OF THE SAME KIND.— (LIMITING 

ADJECTIVES) 

39. — Mere Limitations 71 

40. — Limiting Adjectives 73 

41.— Limiting Adjectives L'sed to Tell How Many 74 

42. — The Articles 75 

43. — The Use of Articles 77 

44. — State, or Condition 78 

45. — Review Exercise 79 

46.— Action Denoted and Predicated in One Word 81 

47. — Parsing the Verb 82 

ACTIONS AND QUALITIES MODIFIED.— (ADVERBS AND 
ADVERBIAL PHRASES) 

48. — Action Modified by a Single Word 83 

49 
50 
5i 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56, 
57 



Parsing Adverbs 84 

■ Action Modified by Groups of Words 85 

— Phrases Denoting Place and Time 87 

— Naming Words and Phrases 88 

— The Preposition and Its Objects 90 

— Phrases Denoting Manner 91 

— Phrases Denoting Cause or Purpose 92 

— Exercise on Adverbial Phrases 93 

— Exercise on Adverbial Phrases 94 



CONTENTS 9 

OWNERSHIP, AUTHORSHIP, ORIGIN, FITNESS, ETC.— (POS- 
SESSIVE CASE AND ADJECTIVE PHRASE) 

LESSON ... , PAGE 

58. — Qualities and Limitations Shown by Groups of Words 95 

59. — Adjective Phrases . 96 

60. — Nouns Denoting Ownership 97 

61. — Case, Nominative and Possessive 99 

62. — Parsing Nouns in the Possessive Case 100 

63. — Possessive Nouns Denoting Kindred or Authorship 101 

64. — Possessive Nouns Denoting Origin or Fitness 102 

65. — Possessive Nouns Denoting Measure 103 

66. — Possessive Pronouns 104 

67. — Parsing Possessive Pronouns 106 

68. — Possession Denoted by a Phrase 108 

69. — Phrases Denoting Origin or Authorship 109 

70. — Phrases Denoting Material; or the Whole, of Which Some- 
thing Is a Part no 

71. — Phrases Denoting Measure of Time, Weight, Etc in 

72. — Exercise on Phrases . 112 

73. — Distinguishing the Meaning of Possessive Nouns 113 

74. — Distinguishing Forms of the Personal Pronoun 114 

75. — Qualities Modified 116 

VERBS.— THEIR CLASS, FORM, VOICE, TENSE, MODE, PERSON 

AND NUMBER 

76. — Action Which the Subject Performs and an Object Receives 117 

y/. — Action Study 119 

78. — Regular and Irregular Verbs 120 

79. — Transitive Verbs; Voice 122 

80. — Intransitive Verbs 124 

81. — Exercises on Verbs 124 

82. — Exercises on Verbs 125 

83. — Exercises on Verbs. ■... 126 

84. — Review Exercises 126 

85. — Review Exercises 127 

86. — Person and Number of the Verb 128 

87. — Person and Number of the Verb To Be 131 

88. — Interrogative Sentences , 133 

89.— Commands, Exhortations, Petitions 134 

90. — Modes and Sentences 136 



10 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

DESCRIBING OBJECTS BY REFERRING THEM TO A CLASS.— 
(APPOSITION AND NOUN IN PREDICATE) 

LESSON PAGE 



91 
92 

93 

94 
95 
96 

97 

98 

99 
100, 
101 



— Class Predicated 137 

— Class Assumed 140 

— Assuming One Class and Predicating Another 140 

— Class Phrases 142 

— Class Phrases 143 

— Class Phrases 144 

— Assuming and Predicating Identity 145 

Miscellaneous Exercise . . 148 

— Miscellaneous Exercise 148 

Review Exercises 149 

Review Exercises 150 



ASSUMING ACTION.— (PARTICIPLES) 

102. — Action Assumed 152 

103. — Participles, Present and Active 153 

104. — Punctuation of Participial Phrases 154 

105. — Participles, Passive and Past 156 

106. — Participles 157 

107. — Participles. 158 

108. — Participles 159 

NAMING ACTIONS AND QUALITIES.— (VERBAL AND 
ABSTRACT NOUNS) 

109. — Actions and Qualities Named , 160 

1 10. — Verbal and Abstract Nouns . 162 

in. — Second Form of Naming Action — Verbal Nouns 163 

1 12. — Review Exercises 165 

RELATIONS.— (CONJUNCTIONS) 

113. — Coordinate Words 166 

114. — Coordinate Conjunctions 7 168 

115. — Signification of And, But, Yet, Or, and Nor ...;:... 170 

116. — Punctuation of the Couplet and the Series 172 

117. — Coordinate Terms . 175 

118. — Coordinate Terms i/. 176 

119. — Coordinate Phrases . 177 

120. — Coordinate Clauses ".". . . . . ... . . . . ... . ... . 178 

121. — Coordinate Constructions. . . . ... . ;.* . V. .... . . ,. .... . ....... 180 



CONTENTS 1 1 

LESSON PAGE 

122. — Coordinate Constructions 180 

123. — Associated Conjunctions 182 

124. — Correlative Conjunctions 183 

125. — Review Exercises. 185 

126. — Review Exercises 186 

ELLIPSIS, ADDRESS, EMOTION, COMPARISON 

127. — Adjectives Limiting a Noun Understood 187 

128. — Possessive Pronouns Limiting a Noun Understood 189 

129. — Nouns Independent by Address 192 

130. — Address Accompanied by Emotion 193 

131. — Adverbial Phrases Without a Preposition 195 

132. — Comparison Introduced by Like 197 

133.— Review Exercises 198 

COORDINATE CLAUSES 

134. — Compound Sentences ' 200 

135. — Coordinate Clauses 201 

136. — Synoptical Review 202 

137. — Synoptical Review 206 

138. — Adverbial Clauses 209 

139. — Adverbial Clauses 211 

140. — Adverbial Clauses 212 

141. — Adverbial Clauses. . . 213 

142. — Adverbial Clauses 215 

143. — Adverbial Clauses 216 

144. — Adverbial Clauses 217 

145. — Adverbial Clauses 218 

146. — Adverbial Clauses 219 

147. — Adverbial Clauses 220 

148. — Adverbial Clauses 221 

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 

149. — Adjective Clauses 222 

150. — The Relative Pronoun as Subject 224 

151. — The Relative Pronoun as Object 225 

152. — Relative Pronoun in the Possessive Case 228 

153. — Relative Pronoun as Object of a Preposition. 229 

154. — Adjective Clauses 231 

155 — Adjective Clauses 232 



12 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON PAGE 

156. — Adjective Clauses Introduced by When and Where 234 

157. — Clauses Introduced by Relative Adverbs 237 

158. — Relative Adverbs 238 

159. — Relative Pronoun Used Also as an Adjective 239 

160. — Relative Pronoun Representing a Noun Understood. . 240 

161. — Review Exercise 242 

162. — Changing Constructions . . 243 

INTERROGATIVES 

163. — Pronouns Used in Asking Questions 245 

164. — Adjectives Used Interrogatively 247 

SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 

165. — Substantive Clause as Object 249 

166. — Substantive Clauses Introduced by Interrogative Pronouns . 251 
167. — Substantive Clauses Introduced by Conjunctive Adverbs... 252 

168. — The Substantive Clause as Subject 254 

169. — Substantive Clauses in Predicate and in Apposition 256 

170. — Substantive Clauses 257 

171. — Miscellaneous Exercise 258 

172.- — Miscellaneous Exercise 259 

173. — Miscellaneous Exercise 260 

REVIEWS 

174. — Review on Participles > 261 

175. — Review on Verbal Nouns 262 

176. — Form of Noun or Pronoun Before a Verbal Noun 263 

177. — Review on Class 265 

178. — Review on Interrogative Sentences 266 

179. — Review on Coordinate Clauses . . . 267 

180. — Review on Substantive Clauses 268 

181. — Review on Relative Pronouns 268 

182. : — Review on Relative Adverbs 270 

183. — Synoptical Review 270 

INDICATIVE MODE 

184. — Future Tense Predicating Action 273 

185.— Future Tense Predicating Quality, Condition, or Class 274 

186.— The Present Perfect Tense 276 

187. — The Present Perfect Tense 279 



CONTENTS 13 
LESSON PAGE 

188. — The Past Perfect Tense 280 

189. — The Tenses 282 

190. — The Future Perfect Tense 283 

191. — Miscellaneous Exercise 284 

192. — Tenses of the Verb To Be 285 

193. — The Verbs Sit, Set, Lie, and Lay 286 

194. — The Progressive Form 287 

195. — The Progressive Form 290 

196. — The Passive Form 29 1 

197. — Exercise on Verb Forms 292 

198. — The Emphatic Form 293 

PARTICIPLES RESUMED 

199. — Perfect Participles 296 

200. — Perfect Participles 299 

201. — Complete Classification of Participles. 300 

202. — Exercise on Forms , 302 

203. — Distinguishing Shall and Will 303 

204. — Distinguishing Shall and Will 306 

205. — Synopsis of the Formation and Uses of the Different Tenses 

and Participles 308 

206. — Review Exercise 311 

POTENTIAL MODE 

207. — Potential Mode, Present and Past Tenses 312 

208. — The Present and Past Potential of To Have 315 

209. — The Perfect Tenses of the Potential Mode. 316 

210. — Review Exercise ; 318 

211. — Potential Mode Predicating Existence, Quality, Condition, or 

Class 319 

212. — Progressive Form of the Potential Mode 321 

213. — Passive Voice of the Potential Mode 323 

214. — Various Forms of the Potential Mode 324 

215. — Review Exercise 325 

IMPERATIVE MODE 

216. — The Imperative Mode 326 

INFINITIVE MODE 

217. — The Infinitive Mode 328 

218. — Progressive and Passive Forms of the Infinitive Mode 330 

219. — Parsing and Analysis 332 



14 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

PHRASES IN PREDICATE 
lesson PAGE 

220. — The Infinitive and Other Phrases in the Predicate 334 

221. — Further Study of Phrases 336 

PHRASES ABSOLUTE 

222. — Noun Independent With a Participle 337 

223. — Phrases Absolute 339 

224. — Independent Expressions 341 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 

225. — Subjunctive Mode 342 

226. — Conditional Clauses 345 

227. — Conditional Clauses , 346 

COMPLETE CONJUGATION, ETC. 

228. — Description of the Tense Forms 347 

229. — Condensed Conjugation of the Verb. ...... 349 

230. — Exercise on Verb Forms 352 

CORRELATIVE CLAUSES 

231. — Comparison Introduced by an Adjective 354 

232. — Clauses Introduced by As 357 

233. — Correlative Clauses With As and Than 359 

234. — Correlative Clauses Denoting Consequence 360 

235. — Transposed Correlative Clauses 361 

236. — Correlative Clauses With The 363 

237. — Correlative Clauses Denoting Purpose 365 

238. — Correlative Clauses 367 

METHODS OF EXPRESSING EMOTION 

239. — Emotional Expressions 368 

240. — Emotion Expressed by a Single Word 370 

241. — Elliptical Expressions of Emotion 372 

COPULATIVE VERBS 

PREDICATING QUALITY, CONDITION, OR CLASS 

242. — Quality Acquired or Discovered Through the Action of the 

Verb . . 373 

243. — Copulative Verbs Used to Predicate Accompanying State . . . 375 



CONTENTS 15 



LESSON PAGE 

244. — Copulative Verbs Predicating Class . 376 

245. — Accompanying Action or State 378 

246. — Exercise on Clauses 380 

DOUBLE OBJECT. — NOUN AND ADJECTIVE 

247. — Double Object Consisting of a Noun or Pronoun With an 

Adjective 382 

248. — Abridged Clause, With To Be, As, As Being 385 

249. — Copulative Verbs in the Passive Voice 386 

DOUBLE OBJECT. NOUN AND NOUN 

250. — Double Object Consisting of Two Nouns 388 

251 . — Double Object 390 

252. — Copulative Verbs in the Passive Voice Followed by a Noun 391 

DOUBLE OBJECT. — NOUN AND INFINITIVE 

253. — Double Object Consisting of an Infinitive and Its Subject 393 

254. — Review Exercise 394 

255. — Copulative Verbs in the Passive Voice Followed by an 

Infinitive 395 

256. — Review Exercise 396 

257. — Review Exercise 397 

258. — Review Exercise 398 

Miscellaneous Examples 399 

APPENDIX PAGE 

A. — Definition of Terms 420 

B. — Laws of Form 426 

C. — List of Irregular Verbs. . . . .' 430 

D.— Gender List for Reference 436 

E.— Conjugation of the Verb To Be 437 

F. — Conjugation of the Verb To See 439 

G. — Use of Capital Letters 443 

H.— Rules of Punctuation 444 

I. — Systematic Classification of the Parts of Speech 452 

J. — Peculiar Constructions 459 

K. — Letter Writing. 463 



COUNSEL TO TEACHERS 

1. Let your chief aim be to call out thought. Talk in such 
a way as to show at once what a necessity, as well as con- 
venience, our language is. Without urging them to talk, lead 
your pupils to ask questions and express their views. 

2. Do not let your pupils forget, from first to last, that 
language is the expression of thought, and therefore subservi- 
ent to it. First promote the clearest possible appreciation of 
the thought, and afterwards notice how the clauses, phrases, 
and words, of the sentence are adapted to the expression of 
the thought. 

3. In order to keep the meaning of the sentence continually- 
in mind, require the class to remember the shorter sentences, 
after having them once read, and to analyze and parse them 
with their books shut. 

4. Whenever the analysis or the parsing grows monoto- 
nous, bring out the same thoughts by questions, returning, after 
a few minutes' exercise, to the ordinary method of recitation. 

5. Do not neglect the written exercises required as seat 
work. If the task assigned in the book is too heavy, lighten 
it ; but do not omit it, unless occasionally, and from special 
causes. Have the work thoroughly and neatly done ; and be 
sure to read and criticize the papers yourself. It is a good 
plan to mention some of their excellences and defects at the 
recitation, without betraying the name of the writer. 

6. If the examples given for analysis, parsing, etc., are too 
few in any lesson, add others of your own selecting; if they 
are too many, use only what you need, but be sure to be thor- 
ough. It is thought that in some lessons there are so many 
examples that a part of them may be reserved for reviews and 
examinations. 

7. If in any school there is serious opposition to the form 
of analysis given in the models, you can bring out the same 
thing by questions until the prejudice is removed. 

8. Do not be too strenuous or exacting in those mere tech- 
nical forms of parsing that have no practical bearing upon the 
use of the language. Remember that parsing is only a means to 
an end, and is valuable only so far as it promotes a correct 
use and ready interpretation of the language. 

[16] 



English Language 

LESSON I 

The Study of Language 

We are now to begin the study of language. Language 
is what we use in telling our thoughts. We speak to those 
who are present, and write to those who are absent;. When 
we think, we think about some thing, and when we talk about 
that thing, we have to name it; so we must have a name for 
everything we talk about. 

We talk about the trees, the grass, the flowers, the birds, 
the sky, the sun ; about boys and girls, men and women, dogs 
and cats, horses and cows ; about teachers, preachers, physi- 
cians, nurses, editors, and missionaries ; about wagons and 
automobiles, steamers and trains and street cars; about our 
hopes and fears, our joys and sorrows, our successes and dis- 
appointments ; and about thousands of other things. 

For all these things we must have names; and in order 
that you may see how necessary these names are, we will no- 
tice how many of them we use in talking of the commonest 
things. 

EXERCISE 

You may give the names of,— 

1. The objects in this room. 4. Articles of furniture. 

2. The rooms of a house. 5. Things that people wear. 

3. Things seen in the street. . 6. Things that people ride on. 

2 [171 



18 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why must we have names for all these objects? — Be- 
cause we cannot talk about them without naming them. 

2. What are we studying? — Language. 

3. How do we use language? — In telling our thoughts. 

4. How do we tell our thoughts to those who are present? 

5. How to those who are absent? 

6. When we wish to talk or write about anything, what is 
it necessary to do? — Name the thing. 

7. For what, then, must we have names ? 

SEAT WORK 

Write neatly on paper the names of, — 

1. Things that are raised in the garden. 4. Different kinds of nuts. 

2. Things that are raised in the field. 5. Tame animals. 

3. Different kinds of fruit. 6. Wild animals. 

Be sure that every word is spelled correctly, and bring 
your papers to the next class. 



LESSON II 

Naming and Classifying Objects 

1. What use do we have for language? 

2. When do we tell our thoughts by writing? 

3. What do you expect to learn from these lessons ? 

4. Can you not talk and write already? 

5. Why do you come here to learn what you already know ? 
— We must learn to speak and write better than we nozv can. 

6. What kind of words have we found to be very nec- 
essary? 

7. Why are names so necessary? 

8. Without looking on your paper, name as many as you 



NAMING AND CLASSIFYING OBJECTS 19 

can of the first list you wrote for today; of the second list; 
of the third ; of the fourth ; of the fifth ; of the sixth. 

9. Why. do we need so many names in language ? — When 
zve talk, we must first name the thing about which we wish 
to talk. 

We will now listen to the reading of each name you have 
written, spelling as you read. 

EXERCISE 

Give the names of different kinds of, — 

1. Wild birds. 3. Trees. 

2. Domestic fowls. 4. Flowers. 

CLASSIFYING WORDS 

As we continue our study we shall find that all the words in 
our language have a classifying name, which is used for con- 
venience in referring to them. Most of these classifying names 
are words that are not used for any other purpose. 

1. The first classifying name we shall notice is noun. All 
words used as names are called nouns, for noun means name. 
Find the nouns in the following sentences : — 

1. The clock ticks on the wall. 

2. Two boys are skating on the ice. 

3. The meadows by the roadside were sweet with new-mown hay. 

4. Time is money. 

5. Fishes draw water through their gills as men draw air through 
their nostrils. 

6. The lost child had yellow hair, blue eyes, and a freckled face. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy forty names from your reader. 

2. Select and copy ten short sentences from one of your 
books, and underline each noun in them. 



20 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON III 

Naming the Parts of Things 

Sometimes we wish to speak of the parts of objects, and 
then we need names for those parts just as much as we need 
names for the objects themselves. 

1. What two parts has a broom? 

2. What three parts has a pin ? 

3. What two principal parts has a knife? 

4. What do we call that part of the blade that is farthest 
from the handle ? 

5. What do we call that part of the blade that is nearest 
to the handle ? 

6. What other parts of the Wade can you name? 

7. What do we call the thin coat that covers an appte ? 

8. What do we call the central part? 

9. What do we call the part that is between those just 
named ? 

10. What do we call the part that fastens the apple to 
the tree? 

11. What do we call the part just opposite the one last 
named ? 

12. What part of an apple is called the pulp? 

13. What does the core contain? 

14. Name the parts of a wooden pail. 

15. Name the parts of a plow. 

16. What parts of a wagon can you name? 

17. Name the parts of a clock. 

EXERCISE 

Find a wagon somewhere, and look over its principal parts. 
If you have none at home, go to a neighbor or to a blacksmith 
shop or implement store or express company, and ask the 



NAMING THE TARTS OF THINGS 21 

owner or driver to tell you the names and uses of any parts 
you do not already know. 

SEAT WORK 

Write about wagons, naming and describing their parts, 

and telling what purposes they serve. Draw a neat line under 

every noun. Be careful to spell every word correctly. 



LESSON IV 

Parts of the Human Body 

Our body is the most wonderful piece of work that God 
has made. When David thought upon his body, he wrote, 
"I will praise Thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully 
made." Read Gen. 2 : 7, and you will see how man was made. 

The body has so many parts you will want to learn some 
of their names, though you know many of them already. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the principal parts of the human body? — 
Head, trunk, and limbs. 

2. What are the principal parts of the head? 

3." What name is given to the bony wall that protects the 
brain ? 

4. What is that part called which covers the skull? 

5. What grows upon the scalp? 

6. Name the parts of the face. 

7. Name the parts of the mouth. 

8. What are the principal parts of the trunk? —Chest, 
abdomen, hips, breast, sides, baek. 

9. What does the chest contain? 

10. Name the different parts of the arm. 

11. Name the parts of the leg. 



22 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

12. What names are given to the different parts of the 
hand? 

13. What names are given to the different parts of the 
foot? 

14. What parts of the body are most used? 

15. Which are more useful, the hands or the feet? 

16. Which could you bear better, to be blind or to be deaf? 
Why? 

17. Tell some things that can be done with the hands. 

18. For what purposes are the eyes chiefly used ? 

EXERCISE 

Get a book or chart on physiology, and look at the pictures 
and names of various parts of the body. Notice also what is 
said about the use of some of these parts. Ask your father 
or mother to tell you about some of them. 

SEAT WORK 

Write something about the most important parts of the 
body and their uses. Begin the first word of each sentence 
with a capital letter, and put a period at the close of each 
sentence, unless it is a question or an exclamation. Do not 
forget to cross the t's and dot the i's, and be sure to spell 
every word correctly. 

THOUGHT GEMS 

The body is a temple in which God desires to dwell. It 
must be kept pure, the abiding place of high and noble 
thoughts. — Mrs. E. G. White. 



Let thine heart keep my commandments : for length of 
days, and years of life, and peace, shall they add to thee. — 
Bible. 



GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES 23 

LESSON V 

Geographical Names 

As you answer the questions, I will write on the black- 
board the names you give me. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What do we call a body of water that is surrounded 
by land? 

2. What do we call a point of land that extends into 
the sea? 

3. What name do we give to a large stream of water? 

4. What do we call very small streams? 

5. What do we call a body of land with water all 
around it? 

6. What do we call a very high ridge of land? 

7. In what State do you live ? 

8. What other States can you name? 

9. Which is the largest river in the world? 

10. Which is the longest ? 

11. What other rivers can you name? 

12. What countries ? 

13. What city is the capital of this State? 

14. What is the capital of the United States? 

15. Name other cities. 

Each of these names of cities, rivers, States, etc., must 
begin with a capital letter, as you see on the blackboard. 

EXERCISE 

Get a geography or a map or a globe and find the different 
things we have talked about, noticing their names and how 
they are spelled. 

Go out into the fields or parks, and see if you can find in 
nature some of the things you have learned about in geography. 



24 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Write names of, — 

Lakes, oceans, seas, gulfs, bays, counties, townships, villages. 

Be very careful about the spelling and the use of capital 
letters in your writing. 

LESSON VI 

Class Names and Individual Names 

Get ready to copy names as fast as I write them on the 
blackboard. 

1. Give me names of boys. 

2. Give names of girls. 

3. If several boys were playing on the ice, and I should 
say, "A boy fell," could you tell which boy I meant? If I 
should say, "John fell," could you tell which one I meant? 

4. If I should say, " A girl is singing," could you tell which 
particular girl I meant? Could you, if I should say, "Ellen 
is singing "? 

5. If I should say, " My uncle lives in a city," could you 
tell what city I meant? Could you tell, if I should say, " He 
lives in Boston" f 

6. Can boy mean any boy? Can city mean any city? Can 
Andrew mean any boy? Can Detroit mean any city? 

7. If I should say, " A pupil is careless,'' could you tell 
which one of this class I meant? Could you if I should say, 
" Jane is careless " ? 

8. We may use the noun merchant in speaking of any one 
of the class of men called merchants; friend, in speaking of 
any one of our friends ; doctor, in speaking of any one of that 
class ; and teacher, in speaking of any one of the class of per- 
sons who teach. 

But if we wish to speak of some particular merchant, 



CLASS NAMES AND INDIVIDUAL NAMES 25 

friend, doctor, or teacher, we have to use a different kind of 
noun; such as, Mr. Ford, Dr. Palmer, Miss Boardman. 

9. So we may use the noun island in talking of any one of 
that class of things; village, in speaking of any village. 

But if we wish to talk about a particular island or village, 
we must use a different name; such as, Borneo, Bloomfield. 

2. A noun like friend or village that may be applied to any 
one of a class is called a common noun; that is, friend is a 
name common to all persons of that class, or we may say it 
is shared in common by all friends. 

3. A noun that means some particular one of a class, like 
Borneo, is called a proper noun; that is, Borneo is a name 
which is the property of a particular island, and can be used 
properly of only this one. 

EXERCISE 

1. Give a proper noun that names a person. Give a proper 
noun that names a place. Give a common noun that names 
a place ; a person. 

2. Tell which of the following nouns are common and 
which are proper : — 

Niagara, lake, corn, John, paper, map, Boston, hill, Ellen, wheat, 
gold, Detroit, Italy, knife, mountain, Alabama, book, Mexico, vase, 
field, Johnson, Lowell, car, chalk, bread, ice, snow, sugar, Iceland, 
apple, glass, Mary, Maine, lily, house, Montreal, Hudson River, Casco 
Eay, Bay of Furidy, Elk Rapids, song, poetry, flowers, Harper's 
Ferry, Glenn's Falls, Lake of the Woods, Mountains of the Moon. 

Note. — Names of substances, such as gold, chalk, snow, 
etc., are classed among the common nouns. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy neatly from your other books twenty- 
five common nouns in one group, and twenty proper nouns 
in another group. 

2. Write twenty-five common nouns of your own in one 
group, and twenty proper nouns in another group. 



26 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON VII 

Initial Letters 

We will now give attention to the list of nouns given and 
prepared in the last lesson. 

4. The first letter of a word is called the initial letter of 
that word ; for initial means beginning. 

What kind of initial letter have the common nouns ? With 
what kind of letter does each proper noun begin? 

Some nouns in common use begin with a capital letter, 
such as the names of the months, the names of the days of 
the week, and the names of tribes, races, political parties, etc. 

Examples. — January, May, Monday, Wednesday, Choctaws, Cir- 
cassians, Democrats. 

But the names of the seasons take a small initial. 

Examples. — The four seasons of our year are spring, summer, 
autumn, winter. 

EXERCISE 
Write the following nouns correctly : — 

andrew, Baltimore, Nation, country, london, plain, Desk, moses, 
Ida, Map, book, Boston, detroit, emma, a Lord and Lady, england, 
europe, ocean, peninsula, Cataract, forest, Richmond, levi, Riches, 
buffalo, a Buffalo, Cleveland, Moscow, paris, peru, poverty, Silver, 
sorrow, Gratitude, virtue, goodness, friday, Winter, jews. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the following sentences correctly : — 

1. My Friend Arthur is in brazil. 

2. He expects to start for Home on the first tuesday in July. 

3. One day in early Spring, philip, jane, and lucy went into the 
woods to gather wild Flowers. 

4. naples is a beautiful City in Italy. 

5. The shortest Days of the year are in december. 

6. September, October, and november are called the Autumn 
Months. 



INITIAL LETTERS 27 

7. The grand divisions of the eastern continent are europe, asia, 
and Africa. 

8. The warmest season of the year is called summer. 

9. The first day of the week is called Sunday. 

10. in the valley of Elah, david, the young Shepherd, fought with 
goliath, the Giant of gath. 

11. The democrats and the republicans are the leading parties in 
our country. 

12. The sioux are a warlike tribe. 

LESSON VIII 

Proper Names Consisting of Two or More Words 

5. When a common noun is used with a proper noun, or 
when two common nouns are used together, to name ? person 
or place, each noun usually has a capital initial. 

Examples. — Gulf of Mexico, Hudson's Bay, Cape Ann, Captain 
Brown, Colonel Shaw, Otter Creek, Isle of Man. 

EXERCISE 

1. Write the following names correctly: — 

Cape cod, Staten island, elijah, river, Columbia river, bay, casco 
bay, Lake, house, Horse, lake Geneva, michigan city, mount Wash- 
ington, bay of panama, gulf of Darien, Mount Holyoke, boston har- 
bor, Hampton roads, shenandoah valley, Washington Prairie, Straits 
of magellan, florida Peninsula, isthmus of suez, Cape of Good Hope, 
Victoria land, london Bridge, moosehead lake. 

2. Write the following sentences correctly: — 

1. The odd fellows have built a hall at silver creek. 

2. Malays and indians, as well as negroes, have a dark com- 
plexion. 

3. The picts and scots were tribes of ancient britain. 

4. The waldenses reside in the valleys of piedmont. 

Note. — It is customary to begin negroes and heathen with 
a small letter. 

SEAT WORK 

Write two paragraphs on what you have learned about 
common and proper nouns. 



28 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON IX 

Number 

Tell which words in the following sentences are nouns : — 

1. A river is a large stream of water. 

2. The tall pine waves in the wind. 

3. The mountain and the squirrel had a quarrel. 

4. The robin and the wren are flown, and from the shrubs the 

jay; 
And from the wood top calls the crow through all the gloomy 
day. 

How would you change the noun river to make it mean 
more than one river? What change would you make in the 
noun stream if you wanted to speak of more than one stream? 

In sentences 2 and 3 how would you change each noun to 
make it mean more than one ? 

What noun in sentence 4 means more than one? How 
would you change it to make it mean only one? How would 
you change each of the other nouns to make it mean more 
than one? 

Which of the following nouns name only one thing? 
Which of them name more than one thing? 

Tree, men, field, children, lake, brooks, pebbles, flute, harps, chains, 
I onnet, willow, kitchen, tongue, face, village, leaf, crosses, castle, 
violets, garden, park, sword. 

Give other nouns that name just one thing. Others that 
name more than one. 

6. When a noun names just one thing, a single object, it 
is said to be in the singular number; but when it means 
more than one thing, it is said to be in the plural number; 
for plural means more than one. 

It is important for us to know the number of a noun, for 
certain other words used with it must be in the same number. 



NUMIJKR 29 



EXERCISE 



1. Which of the following nouns are in the singular num- 
ber, and which in the plural? 

Valley, picture, stones, doors, vase, lamp, tents, boat, rocks, vines,. 
curtain, pinks, paths, man, sky, sphere, homes, life, scenes, world, 
seasons, herd, flock, stoves, schools, mob, clouds, family, woodlands, 
swarm, armies, shores. 

2. Describe each of the nouns above, and change its num- 
ber, as in the following model. 

MODEL 

Valley is a noun, common, singular number ; its plural is 
valleys. 

SEAT WORK 

Copy the following sentences. Put C under every common 
noun and P under every proper noun. Draw one line under 
every noun in the singular number, and two under every noun 
in the plural number. 

1. The vessel brought tea from China, tigers and elephants from 
India, parrots, bananas, and coffee from Brazil, and sugar from Cuba. 

2. At the door on summer evenings sat the little Hiawatha. 

3. With the ebb of the tide, the ships sailed out of the harbor. 

4. Day after day, in the gray of the dawn, plodded the German 
farmer, with flowers and fruits for the market. 

THOUGHT GEMS 

' The roses speak of the Rose of Sharon, 
The lilies of Christ of the vale; 
And every sweet flower unfolds his power, 
And his love that never can fail." 



I am glad to think 

I am not bound to make the world go right, 

But only to discover and to do 

With cheerful heart the work that God appoints. '' 



30 ' ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON X 

Collective Nouns 

Examine the list of nouns in Lesson 9, and tell which of 
them name collections of objects. 

7. Names of collections are called collective nouns. 

EXERCISE 

1. Which of the following nouns are collective? 

Houses, assembly, plains, council, rivers, soldiers, army, torrents, 
band, voices, forests, company, senate, sailors, regiments. 

2. Is soldiers a collective noun? Why not? — Because 
the word soldiers does not necessarily name a collection of 
objects; the soldiers may be in different places far apart. 

3. Would the soldiers make an army unless collected to- 
gether in one place? 

4. What other collective nouns can you give? 

5. While I read from another book, tell me When I come 
to a collective noun. 

SEAT WORK 

In making the following lists, select half of the nouns from 
some good book, and think of the other half yourself: — 

1. Make lists of common nouns in both numbers, putting 
the singular nouns in one column, and the plural in another. 

2. Make a list of collective nouns in both numbers. 

3. Make a list of proper nouns in the singular number. 

4. Can you make out a list of proper nouns in the plural 
number ? 

Note. — It is important to recognize a collective noun, for 
this helps in determining the number of words used with it. 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL 



LESSON XI 



31 



Formation of the Plural 

1. Examine the nouns below, and notice how the plural 
is formed. The dark, broad-faced letters show what has to be 
added to the singular noun to make it plural. 



Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


time 


times 


gas 


gases 


hill 


hills 


hiss 


hisses 


loom 


looms 


box 


boxes 


window 


windows 


piece 


pieces 


roof 


roofs 


maze 


mazes 


hand 


hands 


wish 


wishes 


tree 


trees 


arch 


arches 


lake 


lakes 


barge 


barges 



2. How are the plurals formed for the first column? Does 
the addition of the s increase the number of syllables? 

3. How are the plurals formed for the third column? 
Does the addition of es increase the number of syllables? 

4. Can you tell any reason why es should be added to 
these words instead of adding s as for the first column? 

Add s instead of es to each of the words in the third 
column, and then try to speak the words thus formed, without 
increasing the number of syllables. 

5. Try to speak the word foxs. Speak gas and gass, and 
see what difference you can make in the two words. Try to 
speak the words lashs, matchs, waltzs, taxs, glasss, each in 
one syllable. 

8. By these experiments we see that when a noun ends 
in the sound of s, j, or z, sh or ch, we cannot easily add 
s without forming a new syllable, and that is the reason why 
we add the syllable es to such nouns. 

6. The letter x sounds like ks, so any noun that ends in 
x really ends in the sound of s. Nouns ending in ge end in 



32 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

the sound of /, for the g is soft, and the e is silent, as it is 
also in piece, maze, and many other words. 

Silent e at the end of a word is dropped before adding 
es, as it always is before any syllable beginning with a vowel. 

EXERCISE 

1. Which of the following nouns form the plural by add- 
ing s? Which by adding es, and why? 

Council, ocean, march, flood, bush, mountain, topaz, cage, lens, 
ax, hedge, lace, case, field, atlas, town, race, ridge, conscience, forest, 
porch, adz, plain, prairie, lynx. 

2. Why are the following plurals improper? 
Watchs, cloudes, taxs, bookes, dishs, inchs. 

3. Correct the plurals under 2. 

SEAT WORK 

Change the number of the nouns in the following sen- 
tences, making such other changes as become necessary by 
the change in the number of the nouns : — ■ 

1. Every porch and arch of the church was highly ornamented. 

2. Sword and shield, mace and battle-ax, lay together in a con- 
fused heap. 

3. Chart and compass, book and atlas, were alike unknown. 

4. A dried fish hung from the ridge of the wigwam. 

5. Every ray of the setting sun gilded the bush with burnished 
gold. 

6. As the gondola passed under the bridge, my attention was at- 
tracted by a sudden splash, and when I turned my face, the gondolier 
had disappeared. 

7. A fox leaped over the fence, and hid beneath a branch of 
hemlock. 

8. Consider the lilies, how they grow. 

9. A merry heart doeth good like a medicine. 

10. Wisdom's ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are 
peace. 



NOUNS ENDING IN Y AND IN 33 

LESSON XII 

Nouns Ending in Y and in O 

REVIEW 

From Lesson 11 we learned, — 

1. That the general and most used way of forming the 
plural is by adding s to the singular. 

Examples. — Boat, boats ; plum, plums ; cork, corks. 

2. That in nouns whose final sound does not unite well 
with s, we insert an e before the s to make the pronunciation 
easy and smooth, thus forming an extra syllable, and causing 
the real ending to appear as es. 

Examples. — Bunch, bunches; blush, blushes; class, classes. 

3. That when a noun ends in silent e, the e is dropped, 
as it usually is before a syllable beginning with a vowel; as, 
love, lov-ing, lov-able. This makes it necessary to add es 
for the plural, which, in nouns like those belonging under 2 
above, forms an extra syllable; as, face, faces; rose, roses. In 
other nouns ending in silent e no extra syllable is formed; as, 
stone, stones; care, cares. 

INSTRUCTION 

Notice how the plural is formed in these nouns : — 
Singular Plural Singular Plural 



valley 


valleys 


lady 


ladies 


play 


plays 


duty 


duties 


monkey 


monkeys 


sky 


skies 


boy 


boys 


balcony 


balconies 



The nouns in the first column all form their plural by the 
general rule, — adding s, as shown in the second column. 
But the nouns in the third column change the y to ie (the 



34 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

old-fashioned spelling) before adding s, as shown in the fourth 
column. 

These different ways of forming the plural of words end- 
ing in y are caused by the different kinds of letter that come 
before the y. In valley, play, monkey, and boy the letter just 
before the y is a vowel, so the y is left unchanged; but in lady, 
sky, duty, and balcony the letter just before the y is a conso- 
nant, so the y is changed to ie before adding s. 

9. The only thing, then, you really have to remember 
about nouns ending in y, is that when the letter just before 
y is a consonant, the y must be changed to ie before adding 
s; for all others, follow the general rule. 

Notice how these nouns form their plural : — 

Singular Plural Singular Plural 

cameo cameos potato potatoes 

folio folios cargo cargoes 

seraglio seraglios volcano volcanoes 

Observe that the words in the first column form their 
plural in the regular way, as shown in the second; but that 
those in the third column add es, as shown in the fourth. 
Observe also that the words in the first column all have a 
vowel just before the o, while those in the third have a con- 
sonant just before o. 

10. This makes the rule for nouns ending in o the same 
as for nouns ending in y: When the o is preceded by a 
consonant, es is added, though without forming an extra 
syllable ; in other cases follow the general rule. 

Exception. — Some of our nouns ending in o are taken di- 
rectly from other languages. Such nouns form their plural by 
adding s instead of es. 

Examples. — Halo, halos ; lasso, lassos ; solo, solos. 

But when they have been' long and familiarly used in our 
language, they generally form their plural like ordinary Eng- 



NOUNS ENDING IN V AND IN O 35 

lish nouns. With regard to some of these nouns, however, 
custom is not uniform, even among good scholars, some pre- 
ferring the plural formed by adding s, and others the plural 
formed by adding es. For example, the plural of domino 
may be dominos or dominoes; of portico, porticos or porti- 
coes; of memento, mementos or mementoes; etc. 

EXERCISE 

1. Which of the following nouns form the plural by adding 
s? Tell how the plural of each of the other nouns is made : — 

Echo, forest, volley, sky, flood, chimney, pony, volcano, sash, tax, 
adz, torch, larch, watch, folio, grace, bay, country, pulley, cage, hip- 
popotamus. 

2. Correct the following plurals : — 

Flys, bushs, tornados, monkies, berrys, folioes, countys, monies, 
chimnies, cherrys, boy's. 

SEAT WORK 

Rewrite the following sentences, changing the number of 
the nouns in italics, and making such other changes as become 
necessary by the change of the noun : — 

1. Bridges with several arches spanned the limpid streams at the 
bottom of the narrow valleys. 

2. A fairy dances about the marsh. 

3. A. tomato is under the dish. 

4. With torch in hand, we traveled on through porch and arch. 

5. A face peeped over the wall. 

6. An emu is taller than a crane. 

7. A volcano belches forth a mass of liquid rock. 

8. He writes a folio in an hour. 

9. The hero boldly dispatched the mosquito that had annoyed 
the lady. 

10. The rocks on the opposite shore gave a distinct echo of the 
waltz played by the mulatto. 

11. The rhinoceros is not a native of this country. 

12. A gnu is sometimes called a horned horse. 



36 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON XIII 

Nouns Ending in F and in Fe 

QUESTIONS IN REVIEW 

1. How do nouns ordinarily form their plural? 

2. What nouns add the syllable es to form their plural? 
Give examples from the sentences on the paper just written 
out in the previous lesson. 

3. How do nouns ending in y make their plural? 

4. How do we make the plural of nouns ending in of 

5. When we add es to a noun ending in o, do we increase 
the number of its syllables? 

6. What may be said of the plural of foreign nouns? 

11. The following nouns ending in f form the plural by 
changing f to ve before adding s: — 

loaf thief shelf half leaf wolf 

self sheaf beef elf calf wharf 

Note. — Wharf has two ways of making its plural, — 
wharfs and tuharves. When staff means a stick, its plural is 
staves; but when it means a group of officers, its plural is 
staffs. As a rule / is changed to v when it makes the enun- 
ciation of the word smoother and easier. 

12. Some nouns ending in fe change the f to v before add- 
ing s; as, knife, knives; wife, wives; life, lives. 

13. The plural of letters, signs, figures, and words men- 
tioned merely as words, is formed by adding the apostrophe 
and s ('s). The use of the apostrophe here is to avoid con- 
fusion. If we should add only ^ to a or i or u, for example, 
the result would be the words as, is, or us, instead of the 
plural of the letters as intended. 

Examples. — You are careless about dotting your i's and crossing 
your t's. There are too many and's and mes in your composition. 
Your 9's and -\- } s are neatly made. 



NOUNS ENDING IN F AND IN FE 37 

EXERCISE 

1. Change the number of the following nouns, and use 
their plurals in sentences of your own : — 

Roof, thief, chief, fife, life, strife, leaf, grief, sheaf, gulf, wolf, 
shelf, waif, wife, puff, hoof, bluff, I, but, p, 5, +• 

2. Write the following sentences correctly : — 

1. Two Chieves lay upon the fallen leafs. 

2. Ahs and Ohs are found in almost every line. 

3. There are some bookes on my shelfs that have been much read ; 
such as, the lifes of Great men, the voyages of Columbus, captain 
cook, commodore Kane, and the conquest of mexico by cortez. 

4. As soon as the wolfs had devoured the sheep, they attacked 
the calfs. 

5. Printed 9es look somewhat like 6es inverted. 

6. His ors and buts came so often that all began to laugh. 

SEAT WORK 

Write sentences containing the plurals of the following 
words, letters, and signs : — 

Knife, sheaf, hoof, half, life, wharf, thief, grief, 7, *, p, q. 



LESSON XIV 

Peculiarities in Number 

LISTS FOR REFERENCE 

List 1. Some nouns have very irregular ways of forming 
their plural. 

EXAMPLES 

Singular Plural Singular Plural 

man men foot feet 

woman women tooth teeth 

child children goose geese 

ox oxen mouse mice 



38 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



List 2. Some nouns have no plural in ordinary usage. 







EXAMPLES 




gold 


wheat 


chalk 


tar 


silver 


rye 


ice 


hemp 


copper 


corn 


clay 


vinegar 


tin 


glass 


flesh 


gratitude 


lead 


wood 


mortar 


darkness 



Remarks. — ■ Some nouns of this class may take the plural 
form to denote different kinds of the same substance. 

Examples. — 1. Most of the ivines now in market contain very 
little of the juice of the grape. 2. Vegetable oils are the most whole- 
some. 

Others take the plural form when the name of the material 
is used to name the things made of it. So the glazier has 
tins for fastening panes of glass, the housewife has tins for 
baking purposes, the printer has his leads, the old man puts 
on his glasses to read, the hunter uses his field glasses to lo- 
cate game, squirrels live in the woods, and cents are some- 
times called coppers; but in their ordinary use the words given 
above, and many others, have no plural form. 

List 3. Some nouns have no singular. 



annals 

ashes 

bitters 

breeches 

cattle 

suds 



EXAMPLES 

clothes oats 

dregs pincers 

eaves nippers 

embers riches 

wages remains 

thanks tongs 



scissors 

shears 

snuffers 

stairs 

stilts 

victuals 



Remarks. — Some of these words, such as dregs, embers, 
oats, nippers, stairs, stilts, wages, are in a few instances and 
with some meanings used in the singular number, but such 
uses are very rare. Molasses, although plural in form, is re- 
<nrded as singular. 



PECULIARITIES IN NUMBER 39 

List 4. Some nouns have the same form in both num- 
bers; that is, whether singular or plural in meaning. 







EXAMPLES 




sheep 


species 


couple 


salmon 


deer 


series 


bellows 


odds 


swine 


means 


wages 


gallows 


quail 


apparatus 


shad 


mathematics 



List 5. Nouns are sometimes plural in meaning, al- 
though singular in form. 





EXAMPLES 




fish 


yoke ton 


brace 


pike 


dozen head 


cannon 


pair 


score sail 


shot 



List 6. Some nouns have two plurals with different 
meanings. 

EXAMPLES 



Singular 


Plural 


penny 


pence or pennies 


brother 


brothers or brethren 


fish 


fish or fishes 


die 


dies or dice 


index 


in'dexes or in'dices 


cherub 


cherubs or cherubim 



Remarks. — We use pence to denote a sum, or so much 
in value ; and pennies to denote separate pieces of money. 

Brothers denotes those of the same family ; brethren, those 
of the same society. 

We use fishes to denote separate individuals; but fish to 
denote quantity or the species. 

Dies are stamps for coining; dice are small cubes for 
playing games. 

Indexes are tables of contents or reference ; but in f dices 
are algebraic signs. 



40 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



Cherubs are beautiful children ; cherubim are angels. 
List 7. Most compound words form their plural by 
changing only that part which is described by the rest. 



Singular 
bookcase 
windowpane 
stepfather 
toothbrush 
man-of-war 



EXAMPLES 

Plutal 
bookcases 
windowpanes 
stepfathers 
toothbrushes 
men-of-war 



Singular Plural 

brother-in-law brothers-in-law 

hanger-on hangers-on 

pailful pailfuls 

forget-me-not forget-me-nots 

court-martial courts-martial 

Authorities differ as to whether certain compound terms 
should be written together without a hyphen, with a hyphen, 
or separately. In case of doubt consult the latest dictionary. 

List 8. In a few compound words the two nouns are so 
nearly equal in importance that both are changed in form- 
ing the plural. 

Examples. — Manservant, menservants ; woman servant, women 
servants; Knight Templar, Knights Templars. 

List 9. A name and a title are often united to form 
a proper noun. With respect to the plural of such compounds, 
authorities are not agreed. It is generally conceded, how- 
ever, that the word which, in any given instance, conveys the 
leading thought, and is therefore to be made more prominent, 
is the one to be changed in forming the plural. The following 
may be of some service : — 

EXAMPLES 

Singular. Dr. Hoyt. 

Plural. The two Dr. Hoyts, or the Doctors J. and L. P. Hoyt*, or 
the two Doctors Hoyt, in distinction from the Professors Hoyt or the 
unclassified Hoyts. 

Sing. Miss Latham. 

Plu. The two Miss Lathams, or the Misses Ellen and Jane 
Latham; or the two Misses Latham, in distinction from the Messrs. 
Latham. 

Sing. Mrs. Chatterton. Plu. The Mrs. Chattertons. 



PECULIARITIES IN NUMBER 



41 



List 10. The following nouns ending in o after a conso- 
nant, on account of their foreign origin, commonly have 
their plural made by the addition of s only. 



albino 


fresco 


memento 


proviso 


canto 


halo 


octavo 


quarto 


duodecimo 


lasso 


piano 


sirocco 


solo 


stiletto 


tyro 


zero 



List 11. Foreign nouns sometimes retain their foreign 
plurals. 

EXAMPLES 



Singular 


Plural 






Singular 


Plural 


antithesis 


antitheses 






bandit 


banditti 


analysis 


analyses 






beau 


beaux 


axis 


axes 






genus 


genera 


basis 


bases 






cherub 


cherubim 


ellipsis 


ellipses 






larva 


larvse 


emphasis 


emphases 






minutia 


rainutiap 


oasis 


oases 






nebula 


nebulae 


parenthesis 


parentheses 






vertebra 


vertebra? 


focus 


foci 






miasma 


miasmata 


fungus 


fungi 






magus 


magi 


calculus 


calculi 






stimulus 


stimuli 


synopsis 


synopses 






terminus 


termini 


synthesis 


syntheses 






proboscis 


proboscides 


Some of these nouns 1 


lave 


al 


so a regular 


English plural 


for example, 


beau, bandit, 


focus, 


fungus, cherub. 



EXERCISE 

Correct the following sentences : — : 

1. We saw five deers quietly feeding in the Park. 

2. Gallies were once used in the navys of some countrys. 

3. The book cost two pounds seven shillings and six pennies. 

4. My uncle has several bellowses in his shop. 

5. The fishing Companys caught fifteen barrels of shads. 

6. I like algebra better than any other mathematic I ever saw. 

7. To what specie does that Plaint belong. 



42 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

8. The prophet elisha was plowing with twelve yokes of oxes. 

9. My two brethren, Joseph and Marius, were both under five 
years of Age. 

10. The ice was so heavy that it broke the eave on the West side 
of the house. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Correct the following words, and then use each word 
properly in a sentence, preserving the meaning that seems to 
he intended here : — 

Serieses, tong, scissor, apparatuses, swines, snuffer, victual, fo- 
lioes, lilys, skies, chimnies, deers. 

2. Write the following sentences correctly : — 

1. Don't scatter an ash on the floor? 

2. The bow of one snuffer is broken. 

3. We bought five dozens of. Peaches. 

4. He sold two barrel of fishes? 

5. We pasture forty heads of cattle. 

6. The man is four scores and ten years old. 

7. People knew nothing of such apparatuses in those days. 

8. Molasses are brought from the west india islands. 

9. The news are that there is ice in the gulf of mexico. 



LESSON xv 

Gender 

Read down each of these three columns of words : — 

man woman box 

boy girl tree 

uncle aunt house 

lion lioness brook 

ox cow field 

tiger tigress mountain 

1. Which of these words are names of males? Which are 
names of females? Which are names of objects that have 
no sex? 



GENDER 43 

2. What other names of males can you give? What other 
names of females? Of objects that have no sex? 

14. Names of males are said to be in the masculine 
gender; names of females, in the feminine gender; and 
names of objects that have no sex, in the neuter gender, 
since they are neither masculine nor feminine, and neuter 
means neither. 

EXERCISE 

1. Give proper nouns in the masculine gender; in the femi- 
nine gender; in the neuter gender. Give common nouns in 
the masculine gender ; in the feminine gender ; in the neuter 
gender. Change the number of each. 

2. Give the gender of the following nouns: — 

Matron, master, mother, James, book, uncle, map, niece, youth, 
brother, landlady, nun, Nancy, priest, monk, girl, London, rose, bird, 
son, hero, negro, goose, man, duke, queen, wagon, spinster. 

3. Go through this list of words, and change the gender 
of all the nouns that can be so changed. 

4. Tell which of the nouns in the list above are common 
and which are proper; which are in the singular number and 
which in the plural. 

5. Change the number of each. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Take up each of the following words separately, and 
tell in writing, (1) whether it is a common or a proper noun. 
(2) its number, (3) its gender. (See model below.) 

Hero, countess, maid, wife, nephew, daughter, bride, governor, 
witch, lord, bachelor, Josephine, lad, husband, Philip, widow. 

MODEL 

Hero. — Noun, common, singular, masculine. 

2. Do the same with the nouns in the exercise above. 



44 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON XVI 

Peculiarities in Gender 

If I should say, " My cousins came to see me yesterday/' 
could you tell whether they were men or women, boys or 
girls? If I should say, " My pupils are kind," could you tell 
their sex? 

So we see that there are nouns which, although they are 
applied to persons, do not distinguish their sex; that is, they 
do not show whether the persons are males or females ; for 
cousins or pupils may be either males or females, or they may 
be of both sexes; that is, some of them may be boys, and some 
girls ; some may be men, and some women. 

Just so it is with friends, associates, parents, children, peo- 
ple, teachers, etc. 

EXERCISE I 

1. Change the number of the nouns given above. Does 
their singular form distinguish sex any better than their plural 
does ? 

2. Give other names that are applied to persons without 
distinguishing their sex. 

INSTRUCTION 

Nouns that distinguish sex are called gender nouns. When 
a noun does not distinguish sex, it is as well to say nothing 
about its gender; but if we do refer to the gender, it is better 
simply to say that the noun does not distinguish sex. 

The word poet applies to men and women alike ; but when 
it becomes necessary to distinguish which it is, we may use 
the term poetess. So we use lion, horse, dog, without regard 
to sex, unless it is particularly necessary to make a distinction. 
For the purpose of making this distinction in special cases, we 
have the feminine forms, lioness, mare, bitch. 



PECULIARITIES IN GENDER 45 

Sometimes the feminine form is used to denote both sexes. 
For instance, we speak of ducks or geese without regard to 
sex; but if we wish to make a distinction, we use a different 
word for the male. What is the masculine gender of goose/ 
Of duck? 

The sex of young children, and of lower animals, is often 
disregarded. Examples. — The child cries because it is hun- 
gry. The mole makes its path underground. 

15. Nouns distinguish gender in three different ways : — 

1. By different words. Examples. — Boy, girl; uncle, 
aunt; king, queen. 

2. By different endings. Examples. — Tiger, tigress; 
hero, heroine ; governor, governess. 

3. By prefixing or affixing other words. Examples. — 
Manservant, maidservant ; peacock, peahen. 

XERCISE II 

1. Select the nouns in the following sentences, tell whether 
they are common or proper, and give their number and gender, 
following the model in Lesson 15. Correct all mistakes. 

1. The lost ponys were found in the valley, feeding among the 
Turnips and potatos. 

2. Three vollies were fired upon our enemys, and the echos went 
ringing through the forest. 

3. Uncle John told a tale of elfs that ride by night. 

4. Her parents dwelt beside a glen. 

5. The frost makes white flowers, with crystal leaf and stem, that 
grow in clear november nights. 

6. The winter buried the earth in snow, as Autumn winds bury 
the forest floor in heaps of leafs. 

2. Change the number of all the common nouns in the 
sentences above, and the gender of all the gender nouns. 

SEAT WORK 

Review the first twelve lessons so as to be able to answer 
the questions in the next lesson. 



46 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON XVII 

Review Exercise 

1. What is language? 

2. When do we use spoken language? 

3. When do we use written language? 

. 4. What class of words is indispensable in language? 

5. Why are names so important ? 

6. What are all names called? 

7. Give examples of nouns used to name parts of objects. 

8. Give examples of nouns used to name persons ; places. 

9. What do we call a noun that may be applied to any 
one of a class of things ? 

10. Give examples. 

11. What do we call a noun that is used to distinguish a 
particular thing from all others of the same kind? 

12. Give examples. 

13. With what kind of letter should common nouns begin? 
Proper nouns? 

14. Give examples of proper names consisting of more 
than one word ; such as, George Washington, Staten Island, 
Lake of the Woods. 

15. Write these names upon the blackboard, giving them 
their proper initials. 

16. What is an initial letter? 

17. What kind of initial should be given to the names of 
the months? The seasons? The days of the week? Political 
parties? Religious sects; such as, Methodists, Baptists, Pres- 
byterians? 

18. How should the first word of a sentence begin? 

19. What mark should be put at the close of a sentence? 

20. What mark should be put after a question ? 

21. Write a sentence that should have a period after it. 



REVIEW EXERCISE . 47 

22. Write one that should have a question mark after it. 

23. Give examples of nouns in the singular number. In 
the plural number. 

24. What is commonly done to the singular noun to make 
it plural? 

25. What do we do when s will not unite with the last 
sound of the singular noun? 

26. With what sounds will the sound of s not unite? 

27. Give examples of singular nouns that add es to form 
their plural. 

28. How do we form the plural of nouns ending in o? 

29. If a noun ending in o is one that has been taken from 
some other language, how does it commonly form its plural? 

30. How do we form the plural of nouns ending in y? 

SEAT WORK 

Review further the plural number and the gender of nouns. 

LESSON XVIII 

Review Exercise 

1. How do we form the plural of wolf? knife? chief? 
shelf? leaf? fife? roof? 

2. What is the plural of ox? foot? goose? 

3. Give some nouns that have no plural form. Some that 
always have the plural form. 

4. What word would you use in speaking of more than 
one sheep? Of more than one yoke of oxen? Of a number 
of cattle of different kinds? 

5. What is the singular number of species? series? means? 
mathematics? 

6. What is the plural number of apparatus? couple? 
gallows? 

7. How many plurals has penny? 



48 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

8. When do you use each one of these plural forms? 

9. What are the plural forms of brother? 

10. When do we use each? 

11. How do most compound words form their plural? 

12. What is the plural of toothbrush? handful? apple tree? 
b ro t her -in-law? manservant? 

13. How would you form the plural of Mrs. Clark? Miss 
Johnson? 

14. How is the plural of solo commonly spelled? zero? 
stiletto? 

15. What is the plural oi oasis? focus? genus? 

16. Why do these nouns form their plural in such unusual 
ways? 

17. In what three ways are nouns changed to show their 
gender? 

18. Give examples of each. 

EXERCISE 

Correct all mistakes in the following words and sen- 
tences : — 

1. Heros, navys, lynxs, pullies, dutys, folioes, gnus. 

2. Most of the oranges sold in the united states are from the 
west india islands, and from the countrys bordering on the mediter- 
ranean sea. 

3. The states which border on the gulf of Mexico yield large 
quantities of cotton. 

SEAT WORK 

Classify the nouns in writing, according to the model in 

Lesson 15 : — ■ 

1. Nauhaught the Indian was a deacon. 

2. My brother Nathan was a soldier in the war. 

3. The empress Eugenia is said to be a kind woman. 

4. Lucy Marvin, the only sister of Peter Cook, is a seamstress. 

5. Nathaniel, her son, chops her wood, and goes on errands for 
the neighbors. 



QUALITIES 49 

LESSON XIX 

Qualities 

Name things that are white ; things that are smooth ; things 
that are cold. 

Name something that is both white and cold ; something 
that is both smooth and white; something that is cold and 
smooth. 

When you said, " Chalk is white/' you told a quality of 
the chalk. When you told me that ice is both smooth and 
cold, you told tivo of the qualities of ice. 

EXERCISE 

1. Tell a quality of iron, of glass, of lead, sugar, flowers, 
gold, clouds, grass, trees, John, Mary, savages. 

2. I will now write on the board some of the sentences 
which you have just made. See that I have every word spelled 
correctly. 

1. Iron is strong. 7. Clouds are fleecy 

2. Glass is transparent. 8. Grass is green. 

3. Lead is heavy. 9. Trees are tall. 

4. Sugar is sweet. 10. John is kind. 

5. Flowers are beautiful. , 11. Mary is modest. 

6. Gold is valuable. 12. Savages are warlike. 

3. Answer the following questions in regard to each of 
the sentences above : — 

Which word names the thing that has the quality ? 

Which word shows the quality ? 

Which word affirms the quality of the thing? 

SEAT WORK 

1. Treat the nouns above as in Exercise 2 in Lesson 16. 

2. Write twenty sentences, and in each of them name 
something and tell a quality of it, just as we have done today. 

4 



50 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON XX 

Classifying the Qualities of Objects 

1. Tell me what qualities apples may have, while I write 
the quality words on the blackboard. 

2. Which of these quality words tell something about the 
size of apples? 

3. Which of them describe the shape? 

4. Which tell about the taste, or flavor? 

5. Which describe the surface? Which the color? Which 
the condition? 

We will now arrange these words according to their use. 

Size. — Large, small, medium. 

Shape. — Round, conical, flattish. 

Surface. — Rough, smooth, glossy, shining. 

Color. — Red, green, yellow, streaked, russet. 

Condition. — Ripe, unripe, mellow, hard, crisp, raw, cooked, sound. 

Flavor. — -Juicy, sweet, sour, spicy, tart, mild, rich, mealy, bitter. 

EXERCISE 

Classify the qualities of horses as we have just classified 
the qualities of apples. 

It will help you to think of these qualities if you will go 
and look at some horses or pictures of horses. Also read some 
good horse story, or ask your father to tell you about some 
horse he has known. 

SEAT WORK 

Classify, in writing, the qualities that men may have, giving 
qualities of size, color, character, etc. 

It will help you to think of these qualities if you look at 
different men as you go to or from school. Also look at pic- 
tures of men in some geography or dictionary, and notice what 
is said about them. 



all strong 


skillful 


noted 


good 


cruel 


angry 


useful 


kind 


cheerful 


generous 


industrious 


bad 



SHOWING HOW TO WRITE A COMPOSITION 51 

LESSON XXI 

Showing How to Write a Composition 

After giving me the paper that you have written about the 
qualities of men, you may tell me some of those qualities, and 
I will write the quality words on the blackboard. 

large small 

wise 
happy poor 

selfish 
sober noble 

prosperous 

We will now try to write something about these qualities ; 
and first we must have a heading. What shall it be? 

16. Every chief word of a heading must, in writing, 
begin with a capital letter. 

Qualities of Men 

Some men are large, and 3ome are small. Goliath was a 
large man, but David killed him with a stone. Zaccheus was a 
small man, and had to climb a tree to see the Saviour among the 
multitude. 

Saul was a very tall man. He could look right over the heads 
of all his countrymen. 

Samson was very strong. He carried away the gates of the 
city of Gaza. 

David was skillful in war; but Solomon was noted for his 
wisdom. He was the wisest man living. 

Samuel was a good man. He served God all his days. 

Bad men are apt to be cruel, and often angry. Selfish men 
are not happy men. 

Generous men help the poor, and care for the sick. 

We love to see men noble, kind, useful, and happy. Men 
who are sober and industrious are likely to be cheerful and pros- 
perous. 

SEAT WORK 

Write a composition about the qualities and uses of some 
horse you know or have heard about. 



52 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON XXII 

Predicating and Assuming Qualities 

1. Silver is bright. 7. Mountains are grand. 

2. Spring is pleasant. 8. Rivers are long. 

3. Cherries are sour. 9. Wells are deep. 

4. Thomas is cheerful. 10. Lucy is obedient. 

5. Vegetables are nutritious. 11. Berries are abundant. 

6. Blossoms are fragrant. 12. Napoleon was ambitious. 

1. Tn each of the sentences above, what word names the 
thing? 

2. What word shows the quality of it? 

3. What word stands between them? 

4. Without this word could you tell me that the thing has 
the quality? 

5. In the sentence. Grass is green, what word names the 
object — the thing? 

6. What word shows the quality? 

7. What word stands between them? 

8. Could we affirm that the grass is green without this 
word? — No. 

9. If the quality word alone were placed before the noun, 
would it make sense ? — Yes. 

10. Would any thought be expressed? — Yes. 

11. Should we understand that the grass is green ? — Yes. 

12. Would there be any positive statement that it is green? 
— No. 

17. When no statement is made, but the quality is merely 
mentioned as something already known to exist in the thing, 
we say the quality is assumed; as, green grass. When there 
is a positive statement that the thing has the quality, we say 
the quality is predicated; as, Grass is green. 



PREDICATING AND ASSUMING QUALITIES 53 

EXERCISE 

In which of the following examples is the quality assumed? 
In which is the quality predicated? 

1. Lilies are white. 11. Ice is slippery. 

2. Birds are joyous. 12. Bees are busy. 

3. Clouds are black. 13. Tender vines. 

4. Happy children. 14. Quiet evening. 

5. Clover is fragrant. 15. Bears are clumsy. 

6. Peaches are downy. 16. Enormous elephants. 

7. Tumultuous seas. 17. Fruit is wholesome. 

8. Snow is cold. 18. Temperate habits. 

9. Dreary weather. 19. Indolent people. 

10. Fruitful seasons. 20. Prairies are fertile. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Predicate qualities of the following things: — 

Sun, sky, meadows, desk, trees, house, water, brooks, stairs, pines, 
fire, soldiers. 

2. Assume qualities of the following things : — 

Breezes, study, streets, harvests, night, echoes, life, lanes, pastures, 
ocean, berries, hills. 



LESSON XXIII 

Subject and Predicate 

When we wish to tell a quality of anything, we must first 
name the thing. This is necessary in order that the one to 
whom we speak may know what it is that has the quality. 

After naming the thing, we use other words to predicate 
the quality of it. 

If I say, " Peaches are ripe," — 

1. What word names the things that I wish to talk about? 

2. What word denotes the quality? 

3. What word says that the peaches have the quality? 

4. What two words are necessary to predicate the quality? 



54 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

EXERCISE I 

In each of the following sentences, what word names a 
thing, and what words predicate a quality of it? 

1. x^utumn is delightful. 8. Fields are green. 

2. Breezes are mild. 9. Water is clear. 

3. Skies are blue. 10. Showers are refreshing. 

4. Men are mortal. 11. Books are valuable. 

5. Abraham was faithful. 12. Great is Diana. 

6. Tyrants are cruel. 13. Life is short. 

7. God is good. 14. Patience is powerful. 

18, Each of these groups of words is called a sentence, 
because it names a thing and predicates something of it. 

The name word tells the subject of our thoughts, and when 
we speak, it becomes the subject of our remark ; so it is called 
the subject of the sentence. That part of the sentence 
which predicates the quality is called the predicate. 

The subject and the predicate are necessary parts of a sen- 
tence. There can be no sentence without both of them, though 
one of them is sometimes understood. 

EXERCISE II 

1. What is the subject in each of the foregoing sentences? 

2. What is the predicate? 

3. Which is the quality word? 

4. Which word shows that the quality is predicated? 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write ten sentences in which a quality is predicated of 
the subject. 

2. Select and copy three sentences of the same kind from 
your reader or other book. 

3. Write down three sentences of the same kind which you 
hear some one use in talking. 

4. In each of the sentences written, draw a neat line under 
the subject, and two neat lines under the predicate. 



THE COPULA 55 

LESSON XXIV 

The Copula 

Truth is mighty. 

1. Is this group of words a sentence? Why? 

2. What is the subject? Why? 

3. What is the predicate? Why? 

4. Which is the quality word? 

5. What word shows that the quality is predicated? 

19. This word which shows that the quality is predicated 
is called the copula; for copula means link, and it is used to 
connect the quality with the thing. 

EXERCISE 

1. Which of the following groups are sentences? Why? 
What is the subject of each? Why? The predicate? Why? 
The quality word? The copula? Why? 

1. Lions are strong. 10. Lanes are narrow. 

2. Butterflies are gaudy. 11. Shadows are weird. 

3. Iron is tenacious. 12. Squirrels are sprightly. 

4. Gold is valuable. 13. Cunning foxes. 

5. Cumbersome loads. 14. Rocks are gray. 

6. Angels are pure. 15. Love is eternal. 

7. Cold winds. 16. Happy birds. 

8. Winter is cold. 17. Heaven is glorious. 

9. Scholars are studious. 18. Blue skies. 

2. Which of the groups above only assume qualities? 

3. Assume the same qualities that are predicated in the 
sentences above. 

Remark. — When we assume a quality of an object, we 
have to name that object just as we do when we wish to predi- 
cate something of it ; but since in this case nothing is predi- 
cated, the. name is not called the subject. 



56 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

1. Rewrite the groups given above, assuming the qualities 
that are predicated, and predicating the qualities that are as- 
sumed. Draw a wavy line under the copula when there is one. 

2. Tell, in writing, what you have learned about predicating 
and assuming quality. 

lesson xxv 

Analysis 

20. When we tell what the parts of a sentence are, and 
what their use is, we call this work analysis; for analyze 
means to separate a thing into its parts. When you underlined 
the parts of sentences in Lessons 23 and 24, you were really 
analyzing them. We may underline all the parts of the same 
sentence ; thus : Summer is warm. What is the use of each 
part? 

If we tell what the underlining indicates, we may say, — 

MODEL I 

1. Summer is the subject. 

2. Is warm is the predicate. 

3. Warm is a quality word. 

4. Is is the copula. 

If we also tell the use of each part, we may say, — 

MODEL II 

1. Summer is the subject; it names what we are talking 
about. 

2. Is warm is the predicate ; it tells what we say about 
summer. 

3. Warm is a quality word; it denotes a quality of 
summer. 

4. Is is a copula; it links the quality warm with the sub- 
ject summer, and predicates the quality. 



ANALYSIS 57 

EXERCISE 

Analyze the first four sentences according to Model 1, and 
the second four according to Model 2 : — 

1. Lions are ferocious. 5. Lilacs are sweet. 

2. Clouds are dark. 6. Roses are red. 

3. Rivulets are small. 7. Pebbles are smooth. 

4. Buttercups are yellow. 8. Indians are treacherous. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy the sentences below and underline their parts as 
we did in the sentence, Summer is warm. 

2. Write the analysis of the first three like Model 1. 

3. Write the analysis of the last three like Model 2. 

1. Saul was tall. 4. Cataracts are grand. 

2. Meadows are brown. 5. Boys are noisy. 

3. Winter is cold. 6. Ethan Allen was bold. 

LESSON XXVI 

Qualities Assumed and Predicated 

Assume a quality of each of the following things: — 

Fields, gardens, valleys, forests, hills, horses, lessons, men, chil- 
dren, birds, dogs, books. 

Predicate some other quality of each of the things named 
above. - 

So combine these groups as to assume a quality and pred- 
icate a quality of the same thing in the same sentence. Thus : 
Fertile fields; fields are pleasant. (Combined) Fertile fields 
are pleasant. 

So change each of the sentences that the quality which is 
now predicated will be assumed, and the one which is now 
assumed will be predicated. Thus : Noble men are kind. 
(Changed) Kind men are noble. 

From this exercise you will see that the same quality may 
be assumed or predicated according to its use in the sentence. 



58 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

EXERCISE 

In each of the following sentences point out the word that 
assumes and the word that predicates a quality of the subject. 
Exchange the assumed and predicated qualities, as above. 

1. Ripe peaches are delicious. 6. Brown meadows were bare. 

2. Good people are happy. 7. White lilies are beautiful. 

3. Weary children are fretful. 8. Quiet waters are deep. 

4. Young people are giddy. 9. Ripe fruit is nutritious. 

5. Wild flowers are pretty. 10. Good lessons are enjoyable. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy the ten sentences above, and draw one line under 
the word which assumes a quality, and two lines under the 
word which predicates a quality. 

2. Write the analysis of the first three like Model 1 in 
Lesson 25, omitting the word that assumes a quality. 

3. Write the analysis of the last three like Model 2, but 
adding at the end, as in sentence 6 — 

Brown describes the meadows by assuming a quality of 
them. 

4. Make two sentences, and underline as above. 



LESSON XXVII 

Abstract Nouns 

Analyze orally the following : — 

1. Harsh words are cruel. 6. Sultry days are oppressive 

2. Wild grapes are sour. 7. Rainy days are dreary. 

3. Young plants are tender. 8. Wicked men are deceitful 

4. Soft voices are pleasant. 9. Green timber is heavy. 

5. Wild beasts are fierce. 10. Large animals are clumsy. 

What quality is predicated in the first sentence? — Cruelty. 
What is assumed? — Harshness. Such words as cruelty and 
harshness are names of quality. 

Name all the qualities mentioned in the sentences above. 



ABSTRACT NOUNS 59 

21. Names of qualities are called abstract nouns; for 

abstract means taken away; that is, when we take away a 
quality from the thing it describes, and name the quality, we 
call the name an abstract noun. 

22. Words that simply denote qualities are called adjec- 
tives; for adjective means put alongside; that is, a quality 
word is usually put with the noun that names the thing hav- 
ing the quality. An adjective cannot, be used without some 
noun for it to accompany; so its meaning put along with 
makes it a very appropriate name for a quality word. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write sentences containing the following adjectives, 
drawing a line under each adjective, with an As. below the 
word when it assumes a quality, and a Pr. when it predicates 
a quality : — 

Mild, faithful, cruel, good, powerful, mighty, pure, valuable, 
gaudy, tenacious, glorious, strong, sprightly, eternal, ferocious, happy, 
dark, warm, grand, nutritious, beautiful. 

2. Change each of ten adjectives into an abstract noun. 



LESSON XXVIII 

Parsing Nouns and Adjectives 

23. In Lesson 3 we had an exercise in naming the parts of 
things. When we name the parts of a sentence, — that is, give 
a class name to each word in a sentence, — these parts we call 
parts of speech; for we cannot speak without using these 
various parts of the sentence; hence it is very proper to call 
them parts of speech. A noun is a part of speech, and an 
adjective is a part of speech. 

24. When we tell what part of speech a word is, we call 
it parsing; for parse comes from the Latin word pars, which 
means part.. But in parsing we usually include not only what 



60 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

part of speech a word is, but also what form it is in, and what 
use it has in the sentence. For example, in parsing " men " 
in the sentence, Young men are strong, we say : — 

MODEL I 

Men is a noun, common, plural, masculine; it is used as 
subject of the sentence. 

When we parse the adjectives " young" and " strong," we 
say : — 

MODEL II 

(a) Young is an adjective; it is added to the noun " men " 
to assume a quality of men. 

(b) Strong is an adjective ; it is used to denote a quality 
that is predicated of men. 

In parsing the copula " are," we may say : — 

MODEL III 

Are is a copula; it is used to link " strong " with " men," 
and to show that the quality strong is predicated of men. 

EXERCISE 

Parse all the words in the following sentences, like the 
models above : — ■ 

1. Long stones are tedious. 3. Mossy stones are beautiful. 

2. Red cherries are ripe. 4. Young birds are helpless. 

SEAT WORK 

Write out the parsing of all the words in the following 
sentences, being very careful to punctuate your work cor- 
rectly, like the models above : — 

1. Green meadows are beautiful. 3. Red clover is fragrant. 

2. Young leaves are fresh. 4. Little ants are industrious. 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING 61 

LESSON XXIX 

Analysis ana Parsing 

What is the meaning of copula? What is the use of a 
copula? 

What kind of nouns do we call abstract? Why do we 
call them abstract? 

What name do we give to words that simply denote qual- 
ities? Why do we give them that name? 

What do you understand by analysis? 

Why do we call the various words in a sentence parts of 
speech? 

Where do we get the word parse? What is its meaning 
when applied to a part of speech? What three things are 
usually included in the parsing of a word? 

EXERCISE 

1. Analyze the first five sentences in Lesson 27. 

2. Parse all the words in the last live sentences. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write out the parsing of each word in the first three 
sentences of Lesson 27, giving careful attention to punctuation. 

2. Copy the last five sentences of Lesson 27, drawing one 
line under the subject and its accompanying adjective, and two 
lines under the entire predicate. 

3. Write out the analysis of the last three sentences. 

THOUGHT GEM 

" All common things, each day's events, 
That with the hour begin and end, 
Our pleasures and our discontents, 
Are rounds by which we may ascend/' 



62 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON XXX 

Actions Performed and Received 

1. New ropes are strong. 3. Ropes were broken. 

2. Horses are prancing. 4. Children are playing. 

5. Fruit is gathered. 

1. What is predicated in the first sentence? 

2. What is predicated in the second? 

3. What word denotes the action? 

4. What word shows that the action is predicated? 

5. What performs the action? 

6. What is predicated in the third sentence? 

7. Do the ropes perform the action, or receive it? 

8. What is predicated in the fourth sentence? 

9. Do the children perform the action, or receive it? 

10. What is predicated in the fifth sentence? 

11. Is the action performed or received by the subject? 

EXERCISE 

1. Predicate other actions of, — ■ 
Children, horses, fruit, ropes. 

Which of these actions does the subject perform? Which 
does the subject receive? 

2. Predicate actions of, — 

Men, boys, trees, birds, rain, clouds, grass, rivers, ships, lions, 
fire, water. 

3. Predicate actions that the following perform : — 

Dew, soldiers, stars, fountains, leaves, James, seeds, torrents, 
Indians, flocks, bells. 

4. Predicate actions that the following receive : — 

Gold, cities, food, ships, seeds, soldiers, friends, ice, lemons. 



ACTIONS PERFORMED AND RECEIVED 63 

SEAT WORK 

1. Use the following predicates in sentences of your 

own : — • 

Is falling, were burned, were sold, was left, is eating, are writing, 
are playing, was caught, were punished, was elected, is traveling, are 
roaring. 

2. Make five sentences predicating quality. 

3. Make ten sentences predicating action. 

4. Underline the predicate in each sentence. 



LESSON XXXI 

Action Predicated 

1. Analyze according to the model below: — 

1. Ships were destroyed. 7. Food was eaten. 

2. Bells were tolling. 8. Time is passing 

3. Fish are caught. 9. Diamonds are brilliant. 

4. Grass was mowed. 10. Boys were punished. 

5. Winds are blowing. 11. Rocks were rent. 

6. Dews are falling. 12. Stars are shining. 

13. Soldiers were killed. 

MODEL 

Better days are coming. 

1. This is a sentence, because it names things and predi- 
cates something of them. 

2. Days is the subject. 

3. Are coming is the predicate; it predicates an action 
which the subject performs. 

4. Coming denotes the action. 

5. Are is the copula, and shows that the action is pred- 
icated. 

6. Better describes the days by assuming a quality of them. 



64 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write the analysis of, — 

1. Beautiful fountains are playing. 

2. Tiny fishes are swimming. 

3. Fleecy clouds were floating. 

2. Write the parsing of the nouns and adjectives. 



LESSON XXXII 

Action Predicated 

1. Analyze as in the previous lesson: — 

1. Clouds are changing. 8. Fresh snow is light. 

2. Fruit was stolen. 9. Leaves are unfolding. 

3. Birds are singing. 10. Summer is coming. 

4. Fountains were opened. 11. Vows were broken. 

5. Thrifty evergreens are or- 12. Iron is melted. 

namental. 13. Meteors are bright. 

6. Sick men were healed. 14. Nuts were gathered. 

7. Cities were burned. 15. Gold was discovered. 

2. Parse the nouns, and distinguish the copula and the 
action word or quality word, as below. 

MODEL 

Cities ivere burned. 

Cities is a noun, common, plural number, neuter gender, 
and subject of the sentence. 

Were is the copula ; used with burned to show that the 
action is predicated. 

Burned is an action word ; it denotes an action that is 
predicated of the cities. 

SEAT WORK 

In the next lesson write the analysis of sentences 1 and 2, 
and the parsing of the words in sentences 12 and 13. 



QUALITY AND ACTION 65 

LESSON XXXIII 

Quality and Action 

1. Analyze the following, as before: — 

1. Dark clouds are gathering. 8. Cold winds are blowing. 

2. James was whipped. 9. Happy children were singing. 

3. Seeds were sown. 10. Heavy seas are dangerous. 

4. White roses are beautiful. 11. Brave soldiers were slain. 

5. Warm weather is coming. 12. Green wood was burned. 

6. Children are quarreling. 13. Wild torrents are roaring. 

7. Indians are treacherous. 14. Deep caverns are damp. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy the sentences above. 

2. Underline all *the quality and the action words. 

3. Below each quality word write neatly Q. A. for quality 
assumed, or 0. P. for quality predicated, as the case may be. 

4. Below each action word write neatly A. P. for action 
which the subject performs, or A. R. for action which the sub- 
ject receives, as the case may be. 



LESSON XXXIV 

Qualities and Actions of Birds 

Think up answers to the following questions about birds : — 

1. What qualities have birds? 

2. What can birds do? 

3. What can be done to them? 

4. What birds are useful? 

5. In what ways are they useful? 

6. What other name is often given to some kinds of birds; 

7. What birds are called domestic fowls? 

8. What waterfowls can you name? 



66 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Write a composition on Birds, and in writing it, answer 
the questions above. Be careful about your spelling and punc- 
tuation. 

lesson xxxv 

Review Exercise 

Write sentences answering all the questions and require- 
ments below that are not already answered. Be careful to 
spell every word correctly. 

1. What class of words do we use for naming objects? 

2. What class of words do we use to show the qualities of 
things? 

3. What do we use when we wish to show that a quality 
is predicated? 

4. Name things and predicate qualities of them. 

5. Name things and assume qualities of them. 

6. What do you call a group of words that names a thing 
and predicates something of it? 

7. In such a group, which word is called the subject ? 

8. Why is such a noun called the subject? — Because 
something is predicated of the thing named by that noun. 

9. In the group, dark clouds, what office does each word 
perform? 

10. Is the name word called the subject? 

11. Why not? — Because nothing is predicated of the thing 
named by that noun. 

12. Give sentences in which one quality is predicated and 
another assumed. 

13. In talking of things do we always wish to speak of 
their qualities? 

14. Of what else do we often speak? 

15. Give sentences that predicate action. 



REVIEW EXERCISE 67 

16. Give sentences that assume a quality and predicate an 
action. 

17. Give examples of common nouns. 

18. Why is such a noun called common? — It belongs to 
all the members of the class in common; for it can be applied 
to any one of them as well as to another. 

19. Give examples of proper nouns. 

20. Why is such a noun called proper? — Because it names 
a particular individual, while a common noun can name only a 
class, or one of a class. 

21. Give examples of proper names consisting of two or 
more words, and tell which of the words should have the 
capital initial. 

22. Give examples of common nouns that take the capital 
initial. 

23. Why should Democrat begin with a capital ? Meth- 
odist? Choctaw? 

24. Why should the word Englishman begin with a cap- 
ital letter? — Because it is derived from the proper noun 
" England!' 

LESSON xxxvi 

Objects Alluded To 

1. Ellen is singing. 

2. She is happy. 

In the first sentence, Ellen names a person, and is singing 
predicates something of her. 

In the second sentence, we are talking of the same person 
as in the first, but we do not use her name. Since she has 
just been mentioned (named) we allude to her by using the 
word she. Every one knows who is meant as well as he 
would if I should say, " Ellen is happy." 



68 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



EXERCISE 



1. Andrew is studying. 

2. Andrew is industrious. 

How may we speak of Andrew in the second sentence 
without using his name? 

1. Answer similar questions in regard to the following 
sentences : — ■ 

1. Young frees are flourishing. 1. Chalk is white. 

2. Young trees are fruitful. 2. Chalk is useful. 

2. Analyze like the model below : — 

1. He is writing. 6. The}' were kind. 

2. They were discharged. 7. He was arrested. 

3. She is forgetful. 8. She was deserted. 

4. It is good. 9. They were accused. 

5. He is haughty. 10. It is falling. 

MODEL 

She was glad. 

1. This group of words is a sentence; it alludes to a per- 
son, and predicates something of her. 

2. She is the subject; it alludes to some one previously 
named. 

3. Was glad is the predicate. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy the ten sentences above. 

2. Draw a neat line under each word that alludes to some- 
thing previously named. 

3. Draw a wavy line under each copula. 

4. Draw a neat line under each quality or action that is 
predicated, marking each one Q or A, as the case may be. 

5. Write the following sentences correctly : — 

1. Buffalos live on the Prairies in the western part of the mis- 
sissippi valley. 



OBJECTS ALLUDED TO 69 

2. The boxs contained candys, buns, ruskes, cookys, and oranges? 

3. The mosque of omar is built on mount moriah, where Solomon's 
temple once stood. 

4. The republicans were victorious last Autumn. 

5. Oasises cheer the weary Traveler in the Desert. 

6. The college term began on tuesday, December 28. 



LESSON XXXVII 

Persons Alluded To 

What words in the following sentences allude to persons? 

1. She is calling. 6. They were angry. 

2. It is strange. 7. It is treacherous. 

3. They are waiting. 8. They are singing. 

4. He was punished. 9. He is sad. 

5. She is industrious. 10. It is grand. 

1. If my name were Clara, and. I should say, "Clara is 
happy," would you think I spoke of myself, or of some other 
Clara? 

How should I have to speak in order that you might know 
that I was speaking of myself? 

What word must I use, then, when I wish to predicate 
something of myself? 

2. If .your name were James, and I should say, "James is 
welcome" would you think I meant you, or some other James ? 

What should I say if I meant you to understand that I 
was speaking to you of yourself? 

Then what word must I use when I wish to predicate 
something of the person I am speaking to? 

EXERCISE 

Analyze as directed in the model on the next page : — 

1. I was entertained. 4. We are delayed. 

2. You are impatient. 5. You are kind. 

3. We are waiting. 6. I am coming. 



70 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

MODEL 

Analyze as before, but in giving the analysis say, — ■ 

I alludes to the speaker. 

We, to the speaker and those associated with him. 

You, to the person or persons spoken to. 

He, she, to a person previously mentioned. 

They, to persons or things previously mentioned. 

INSTRUCTION 

25. Words that represent objects by alluding to them in- 
stead of naming them, are called pronouns; that is, for- 
nouns, for pro means for. 

26. A pronoun that alludes to the speaker is said to be in 
the first person; one that alludes to the person spoken to, in 
the second person; and one that alludes to a person or thing 
spoken of, in the third person. 

SEAT WORK 

Study the next lesson; write the analysis of the first f hree 
sentences, and the parsing of the pronouns in all. 

LESSON XXXVIII 

Parsing Pronouns 

Analyze according to the models : — 

1. He is coming. 7. It is admired. 

2. You are kind. 8. They are abundant. 

3. I am grieved. 9. You were reciting. 

4. She is displeased. 10. I am busy. 

5. It was beautiful. 11. He is generous. 

6. They are invited. 12. She is conceited. 

MODELS 

We arc waiting. 
We is a pronoun, first person, plural number, and subject 



P A RSI NG PRO i\ T OU NS 71 

of the sentence. (This word does not distinguish sex, but 
may allude to persons of either sex, or of both sexes.) 

He is forgetful. 

He is a pronoun, third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, and subject of the sentence. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write a list of questions about dogs, similar to L hose 
we asked about birds in Lesson 34. 

2. Write a short composition on Dogs, answering all the 
questions you asked. 



LESSON xxxix 

Mere Limitations 

1. Men are strong. 4. Those men are old. 

2. Good men are happy. 5. This book is niw. 

3. These men are kind. 6. That land is fruitful. 

In the first sentence, men may mean any men or all men. 

In the second sentence, men, with the word good before it, 
can mean only such men as are good. The word good shows 
what men are meant, by telling a quality of them. 

In the third sentence, men, with the word these before it, 
must mean some men that are near by, or that have just been 
mentioned. The word these shows what men are meant, with- 
out telling any of their qualities. 

In the fourth sentence, the word those tells what men are 
meant, without showing any quality of them. It denotes men 
farther away, or that were mentioned sometime in the past. 

In the fifth sentence, this shows that I mean a book that is 
in hand, near by, or just mentioned. 

This means the same as these, and that the same as those; 



72 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

only this and that are used when but one thing is meant, and 
these and those when more than one is meant. 

EXERCISE I 

Analyze like the model below : — 

1. Those lofty walls are crumbling. 

2. That forest is beautiful. 

3. This book is interesting. 

4. These long days are tiresome. 

5. Those great trees are majestic. 

6. This poor man is generous. 

MODEL 

That tree is fruitful. 

1. Tree is the subject of the sentence. 

2. Is fruitful is the predicate; it predicates a quality of the 
subject. 

3. Fruitful denotes the quality. 

4. Is is the copula, and shows that the quality is predicated. 

5. That tells what tree is meant. It shows that we mean 
a tree that is somewhat distant, or that was mentioned in the 
past. 

INSTRUCTION 

27. Words added to nouns to show quality are called qual- 
ifying adjectives. 

28. Words like this and that, added to nouns to tell what 
one or which one is meant, without showing any quality of the 
thing, are called limiting adjectives; for they limit the scope 
of the noun to the ones pointed out by such words. 

EXERCISE II 

1. Point out all the adjectives in the sentences above, and 
tell which are qualifying, and which limiting. 

2. Parse the adjectives according to the following — 



MERE LIMITATIONS 73 

MODEL 

Those lofty walls are crumbling. 
Those is an adjective, limiting; it is added to the noun 
zvalls to tell what walls are meant. 

Lofty is an adjective, qualifying; it is added to the noun 
walls to denote an assumed quality (to show how high they 
are). 

SEAT WORK 

1. Study the examples given in the next lesson. 

2. Write ten sentences, each containing one of these words, 
this, that, these, or those. 

LESSON XL 

Limiting Adjectives 

After analyzing each sentence, parse the words in it: — 

1. That gloomy cave was explored. 

2. Those broad valleys are productive. 

3. These men are needy. 

4. That house is large. 

5. Those things were forgotten. 

6. This water is clear. 

7. That man was arrested. 

8. Those lions are ferocious. 

9. This lesson is short 

10. Virtuous rulers are honored. 

11. Beautiful icebergs were passing. 

12. Those faithful men were rewarded. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy the sentences above. 

2. Draw a neat line under all the adjectives. 

3. Mark the limiting adjectives with an /, and the quali- 
fying adjectives with a q. 

4. Draw a wavy line neatly under each copula. 



74 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON XLI 

Limiting Adjectives Used to Tell How Many 

1. Two men were drowned. 

2. Few passengers were saved. 

3. Several letters were received. 

4. Many people are unhappy. 

In the first sentence, two tells how many men were 
drowned, so that men, as here used, applies to just two men, 
and cannot mean fewer or more than that number. 

In the second sentence, few shows that a very small num- 
ber of passengers is meant, but does not denote any definite 
number. 

In the third sentence, several denotes an indefinite num- 
ber of letters, more than a few, yet not many. 

In the fourth sentence, many shows that a great number 
of people is meant, but does not make the number definite; 
we cannot tell just how many. 

EXERCISE 

Parse the limiting adjectives: — 

1. Many good men are poor. 

2. That choice was bad. 

3. These precious days are passing. 

4. Many bright lights are burning. 

5. Few buildings were occupied. ■ 

6. Several valuable ships were lest. 

7. Four costly watches were stolen. 

8. This book is useful. 

9. One day is lost. 

.10. Few words, were forgotten. 

11. We are traveling. 

12. You were expected. 

Remarks. — In parsing four, say that it is added to the 



LIMITING ADJECTIVES 75 

noun watches to tell how many. In parsing such an adjective 
as few or many, say it is added to the noun to tell indefinitely 
how many. 

SEAT WORK 

Write a composition on what you have learned about ad- 
jectives, giving it a subject, and being careful to spell and 
punctuate correctly. 

LESSON XLII 
The Articles 

1. The young lion was playful. 

2. A good man is honored. 

3. An eagle is strong. 

4. No harsh words were spoken. 

5. Some children arc disobedient. 

In the first sentence, the shows that some particular lion 
is meant. 

In the second sentence, a denotes one, but no particular 
one. 

An means the same as a, but is used before a word that 
begins with a vowel sound, while a is used before a word that 
begins with a consonant sound, as may be seen in the follow- 
ing examples : — 

a lady an oak 

a mountain an ornament 

a house an heir 

a eunuch an enemy 

a useful article an undertone 

29. The word the is called a definite article; the word 
a or an is called an indefinite article. 

In the fourth sentence, no is used to give a negative mean- 
ing to the sentence. It makes it mean just the opposite of 
what it would without this word. 



76 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



In the fifth sentence, some shows that children, as here 
used, does not mean all children, but only a part of them, 
probably not a great many. 

EXERCISE 

Analyze and parse : — 

1. The leaves are fading. 

2. An interesting story was reac 

3. Some dread object is passing. 

4. A rusty tomahawk was found. 

5. No worthy effort is lost. 

6. The distant sea is murmuring. 

7. Few rich men are generous. 

8. Many stars are shining. 

9. The gentle dews are falling. 
10. Three large ships were sunk. 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

Sentence i 

The is that kind of limiting adjective called a definite 
article; it is added to the noun leaves to show that some defi- 
nite leaves are meant. 

Sentence 2 

An is that kind of limiting adjective called an indefinite 
article; it is added to the noun story, and denotes one but no 
definite one. 

Remark. — In sentence 3, some seems to be added to the 
noun object to show that no definite object is meant. The 
speaker cannot distinguish the object. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 6, 8, and 10, and the parsing 
of the qualifying adjectives in all the sentences. 



THE USE OF ARTICLES 77 

LESSON XLIII 

The Use of Articles 

In the examples of a and an in the preceding lesson, you 
see house with an a before it and heir with an before it, yet 
both these words begin with h. Pronounce them and you will 
see that h in house is sounded, while h in heir is silent. No- 
tice that the choice between a and an does not depend on the 
first letter, but on the first sound in a word. 

Likewise, a is used before useful because the first sound is 
like you, and y here is a consonant ; but the u in undertone does 
not have the y sound, and so takes an before it. 

EXERCISE 

1. Tell which should be used, a or an, before each of the 
following : — 

Union, uncle, apple, acorn, honor, horror, hundred, humble spirit, 
united family, unfortunate word, cloud, hill, American, European, 
Australian, history. 

2. Tell the difference in meaning between: — 

1. The (a) house is on lire. 

2. I read about the (an) accident. 

3. He heard (the) whistles blowing. 

4. She bought the black and (the) white goods. 

5. Wanted : a carpenter and (a) printer. 

6. Each society has a secretary and (a) treasurer. 

7. I bought a cotton and (a) silk umbrella. 

8. We need an honest, (a") reliable, and (an) experienced man. 

9. Read the fourth and (the) last stanza. 

10. Bring the bread and (the) butter. 

11. He is a better speaker than (a) writer. 

12. The cause of (the) diesase is not well understood. 

13. This exhibit is open to (the) visitors. 

14. That book will be helpful to both (the) teacher and (the) 
pupil. 

15. I heard the (an) explosion last night. 



78 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Copy these sentences, inserting the proper article, a, an, or 
the, or omit it if not needed: — 

1. The business failed from lack of confidence. 

2. He mentioned two classes, the sick and unfortunate. 

3. Omit the second and ■ fourth chapter. 

4. Omit the second and fourth chapters. 

5. A black and white cow was stolen. 

6. Neither the Old nor New Testament is ort of date. 

7. Both the early and latter rains are mentioned. 

8. lion is ■ king of beasts. 

9. That is a poor kind of pen. 

10. Lincoln was a great and good man. 



LESSON XLIV 

State, or Condition 

1. Mother is weary. 

2. The sick child is worse. 

30. In the first sentence, we predicate a state of mother. 
She is not always weary, but is in that state now. Weary 
denotes the condition, and is shows that it is predicated. 

31. In the second sentence, we assume one condition. 

and predicate another. Sick denotes the assumed condition, 
and worse, the predicated condition. 

EXERCISE 

Analyze and parse : — 

1. I am sad. 

2. The lonely pilgrim is worn. 

3. The sick soldiers were removed. 

4. The weary child is sleeping. 

5. Many sad hearts were eheered. 

6. Those withered leaves are dead. 

7. A dreadful hurricane was described. 

8. The cloudless sky is beautiful. 



STATE, OR CONDITION 79 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write a sentence that predicates quality. 

2. Write a sentence that assumes one quality and pred- 
icates another. 

3. Write a sentence that predicates action. 

4. One that assumes quality and predicates action. 

5. One that predicates state. 

6. One that assumes one state and predicates another. 

7. One that assumes state and predicates action. 

LESSON XLV 

Review Exercise 

1. What class of words do we use when we wish to allude 
to things that have just been mentioned? 

2. Give several examples. 

3. What word must the speaker use when he wishes to 
predicate something of himself? 

4. What word must he use when he wishes to predicate 
something of himself and those associated with him? 

5. What word do we use when we wish to speak to some 
one in regard to himself? 

6. Give examples of the proper use of all these pronouns. 

7. What kind of adjectives are used to describe objects by 
telling their qualities, their condition, or their- kind? Give 
examples. 

8. What kind of adjectives point out things, without show- 
ing their qualities, condition, or kind? 

9. What adjective is used to show that the thing we are 
talking about is one that is near by, or lately mentioned? 

10. What do we use when the thing is farther off in time 
or place? 

11. When should these and those be used in preference to 
this and that? 



80 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

12. Give examples of words used to tell just how many 
things are meant. 

13. Give examples in which words are used to tell indefi- 
nitely how many. 

14. What word is used to show that a very small number 
is meant? 

15. What word is used to denote a very large number? 

16. What word denotes a number greater than a few, and 
not so great as is denoted by the word many? 

17. What adjective is sometimes used to give a sentence 
just the opposite meaning from what it would have without 
that word ? 

18. Give examples of this use of the word. 

19. For what purpose is the generally used? 

20. What does a denote ? 

21. What do we call a noun used to name a quality? 

22. What do we call a noun that is used to name a collec- 
tion of objects? 

23. When do nouns ending in o form their plural regu- 
larly; that is, by adding sf 

24. In what other way do they form their plural? 

25. When do nouns ending in y form their plural regularly ? 

26. How do they form the plural when the next letter 
before the y is not a vowel? 

27. Give examples of nouns that change final / to vc before 
adding s. 

28. Give examples of nouns that do not change final / in 
this way. 

29. Give examples of nouns that end in fe and form the 
plural b>* changing the / to v before adding s. 

30. Give examples of nouns that, although they end in fe, 
do not change the / to v in forming the plural. 



ACTION DENOTED AND PREDICATED IX ONE WORD 81 

LESSON XLVI 

Action Denoted and Predicated in One Word 

1. The wind is blowing. 

2. The wind blows. 

These two sentences are alike in meaning; they both pred- 
icate the same action of the wind. 

In the first sentence, blowing denotes the action, and is 
shows that the action is predicated ; but in the second sentence, 
the word blows denotes the action and predicates it. It does 
the work of both the action word and the copula. 

Compare the following sentences in the same way : — 

1. The rain is falling. 1. The sun is shining. 

2. The rain falls. 2. The sun shines. 

1. The ocean is roaring. 

2. The ocean roars. 

32. A word that both denotes and predicates is called a 
verb, or sometimes a complete verb, or finite verb; two 

or more words used together, one to denote and one or more 
to predicate, are called a verb phrase. 

EXERCISE 

In which of the following sentences is action denoted and 
predicated by one word ? Denoted by one word and predicated 
by another? Not denoted or predicated at all? 

1. The heavy thunders roll. 7. The precious moments fly. 

2. The vivid lightnings flash. 8. Those wicked men are angry. 

3. The sea is rough. 9. The light snow falls. 

4. Gay young soldiers march. 10. Many anxious friends wept. 

5. The hoarse torrents roar. 11. The cold winds blew. 

6. The nights were dark. 12. The sad rain is dripping. 

13. Bright waves dance. 



82 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

The unwelcome guest departed. 

1. This group of words is a sentence. 

2. Guest is the subject. 

3. Departed is the predicate ; it predicates action. 

4. The shows that some definite guest is meant. 

5. Unwelcome describes the guest by assuming a quality 
of him. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy and analyze the first, third, seventh, eighth, and 
twelfth sentences according to the models given above. 

2. Parse the words in three other sentences. 

LESSON XLVII 

Parsing the Verb 

Analyze the first live sentences, and parse the verbs in 
all the other sentences : — ■ 

1. Dark clouds gather. 8. The ground is cold. 

2. The weather is stormy. 9. Flowers fade. 

3. The sad winds moan. 10. The old man listened. 

4. The gloomy days are coming. 11. They were speechless. 

5. The silent stranger retired. 12. Merry squirrels frisk. 

6. The moist earth is soft. 13. We are glad. 

7. The fresh young leaves unfold. 14. You are delighted. 

15. I am waiting. 

Remark. — / am waiting means the same as / wait; and 
am waiting, since it means the same as wait, is called a verb, 
or more exactly, a verb phrase, and parsed like the others, with 
the addition of telling what each word in the verb phrase does. 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

The dead leaves rustle. 
1. The is that kind of limiting adjective called a definite 
article. It is added to the noun leaves to show that some defi- 
nite leaves are meant. 



PARSING THE VERB 83 

2. Dead is an adjective, qualifying, added to the noun leaves 
to show their condition. 

3. Rustle is a verb ; it denotes an action and predicates it. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write the parsing of all the words in the last three sen- 
tences above. 

2. Write out a good definition of parse and analyze. Punc- 
tuate your work carefully. 

LESSON XLVIII 

Action Modified by a Single Word 

1. Winter is coming soon. 

2. God rules above. 

3. Gently falls the dew. 

In the first sentence, s^oon tells when winter is coming. 

In the second sentence, above tells where God rules. 

In the third sentence, gently tells how the dew falls. 

33. Single words that tell when, where, and how are called 
adverbs; that is, they are added to the verb to tell these va- 
rious things. 

EXERCISE 

Parse the adverbs according to the models given below. 

1. Those slender branches wave gracefully. 

2. The hunter rose early. 

3. The bees fled precipitately. 

4. The happy birds sing sweetly. 

5. That voice is silent now. 

6. The huge iceberg steadily approached. 

7. The angry tempest loudly roars. 

8. The eve is drawing on. 

9. Slowly droops the gentle twilight. 
10. The call was frequently repeated. 



84 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

MODELS 

Winter is coming soon. 

Soon is an adverb; added to the verb is coming to tell 
when. 

God rules above. 
Above is an adverb; added to the verb rules to tell where 
God rules. 

Branches wave gracefully. 
Gracefully is an adverb; added to the verb wave to tell 
how the branches wave. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write the parsing of the adverbs in the first five sen- 
tences above. 

2. Write out what you know about adverbs. 



LESSON XLIX 

Parsing Adverbs 

Analyze and parse, — 

1. The night is softly dying. 

2. The beautiful stranger never returned. 

3. No sad faces were seen there. 

4. That foolish promise was rashly made. 

5. Old friends are always kindly remembered. 

6. Good men sometimes err. 

7. The two friends walked on silently. 

8. He pressed eagerly forward. 

9. His books were carefully selected. 

10. We firmly resisted. 

11. Our pursuers came furiously on. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write two sentences containing adverbs that tell when, 
two that tell where, and two that tell how. 



PARSING ADVERBS 85 

2. Write a composition on Berry Picking, by first writing 
a large number of questions about it, then writing the answers 
in your composition (without referring to the questions if 
you can). 

3. Draw a neat line under every adverb in your compo- 
sition. 

LESSON L 

Action Modified by Groups of Words 

1. Peace ever reigns there. 

2. Peace ever reigns in heaven. 

3. Flowers bloom in summer. 

In the first sentence, there tells where peace reigns. 

In the second sentence, in heaven tells where peace reigns. 
Heaven names the place, and in shows the relation of the place 
to the act of reigning. 

In the third sentence, in summer tells when the flower:; 
bloom. Summer names the season of the year, and in shows 
the relation of the season to the blooming of the flowers. 

EXERCISE 

1. Fill the blanks in the following sentences with a group 
of words that tell where the action is done: — . 

1. The sun shines . 6. Rabbits burrow -. 

2. My uncle resides . 7. Wild beasts roam . 

3. Fishes live . 8. Ships sail . 

4. Birds fly . 9. Boys skate . 

5. Clouds float . 10. Grass grows . 

2, Use each of the following groups in a sentence : — 

1. in the house 6. on paper 

2. in the trees 7. by the window 

3. on the roof 8. in the meadow 

4. in the sky 9. through the forest 

5. on the ground 10. in the corner 



86 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

3. Analyze according to the model below, and answer ques- 
tions similar to those that follow it. 

1. The ship sank in the harbor. 

2. The clear water trickled down the rock. 

3. The horses ran furiously across the bridge. 

4. Happy birds are singing in the forest. 

5. The sun is peeping over the hills. 

MODEL 
Sentence I 

1. Ship is the subject. 

2. Sank is the predicate. 

3. The shows that a particular ship is meant. 

4. In the harbor tells where the ship sank. 

Which word of the group names the place where the ship 
sank? 

Which word shows the relation between the place and the 
sinking of the ship? 

What does the word the tell ? 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy and fill out the following sentences by telling 
where the action is done : — 

1. Rain beats . 6. Jane sits . 

2. Fire burns . 7. The children play . 

3. The clock ticks . 8. The kitten sleeps . 

4. The book lies. . 9. The cattle feed . 

5. The chair stands . 10. Moses stood . 

2. Use each of the following groups in a sentence : — 

1. on the blackboard 6. at the falls 

2. in the kitchen 7. on the cars 

3. in the sea 8. in a boat 

4. on the ocean 9. by the fire 

5. in Boston 10. on the piano 

3. Write the analysis of the first two sentences in each of 
the sentence groups above. 



PHRASES DENOTING PLACE AND TIME 87 



LESSON LI 

Phrases Denoting Place and Time 

1. In the following sentences find the phrases denoting 
place, and tell what each one does. 

In each phrase tell which word denotes something, and 
which word shows relation. 

1. Silently the twilight creeps over the valleys. 

2. Pegasus strayed into a quiet village. 

3. Loud the clamorous bell was ringing from its belfry grim. 

4. Noisily the cocks crowed from a neighboring farmyard. 

5. A pure fountain flowed from the greensward. 

6. The wigwam stood by the shining Big-Sea- Water. 

2. Fill the blank in each of the following sentences with a 
group of words that tells when: — 

1. The sun shines . 6. Shadows lengthen . 

2. My friend came . 7. Fruit is abundant . 

3. The sun is hot . 8. The birds return . 

4. The air is cool . 9. Wild beasts prowl . 

5. Roses bloom . 10. The leaves fall . 

3. Use each of the following phrases in a sentence of your 
awn. Thus : — 

Laborers return in the evening. 

1. in the evening 8. in the daytime 

2. at noon 9. in summer 

3. in the morning 10. in the night 

4. in the winter 11. before breakfast 

5. in the spring 12. before daybreak 

6. in the twilight 13. through the day 

7. in autumn 14. at last 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy and fill out each sentence with a group of words 
that tells when: — 



50 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

1. Men sleep . 6. It was completed . 

2. They work -. 7. Snow falls , 

3. Cocks crow . 8. We retire . 

4. He was rational . 9. Men plow . 

5. They came . 10. Father returns- . 

2. Write each of these phrases in a sentence : — 

1. at night 8. before noon 

2. at daybreak 9. before morning 

3. at evening 10. before midnight 

4. after dark 11. during the night 

5. after dinner 12. by noon 

6. after sunset 13. at times 

7. before night 14. after school 

3. Write the parsing of all the words in sentences 1 and 2, 
and the analysis of sentences 4 and 5. 

LESSON LII 

Naming Words and Phrases 

34. We have seen that a word added to a verb to tell how, 
when, or where, is called an adverb; and so a group of words 
added to a verb to tell how, when, or where, must also be an 
adverb. But in order to distinguish between a single word 
and a group, we call the single word an adverb, and the group 
an adverbial phrase. 

Requirement. — Point out ten adverbial phrases in the last 
two lessons, and tell why each is used. 

Example. — Flowers bloom in summer. 
In summer is an adverbial phrase ; it is added to the verb 
bloom to tell when the flowers bloom. 

35. Notice that in an adverbial phrase there is no adverb, 
but that each phrase has a noun in it; and that before the noun 
there is a little word that shows relation, Now since this re- 



NAMING WORDS AND PHRASES 89 

lation word goes before the noun, we call it a preposition; 

for the word preposition (pre-position) means before in po- 
sition. 

36. The preposition always shows the relation between the 
object named by the noun that follows it, and something else; 
so the noun is said to be the object of the relation shown by 
the preposition, or,, for the sake of brevity, the object of the 
preposition. 

EXERCISE 

1. Point out the adverbial phrase in each sentence, and tell 
of what the phrase is composed : — 

1. He returned in the evening. 

2. Flowers bloom in summer. 

3. The leaves fall in autumn. 

4. Before midnight the heavy clouds cleared away. 

5. Few words were spoken during the exercises. 

2. Analyze the five sentences above according to this 
model : — ■ 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Sentence i 
He is the subject, and returned is the predicate. 
In the evening tells when he returned ; evening names a 

part of the day, and in shows the relation of the evening to 

the act of returning. 

3. Parse each preposition and its object like this model: — 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

In is a preposition ; it shows the relation of the evening to 
the act of returning. 

Evening is a noun, common, third person, singular num- 
ber, neuter gender, and object of the preposition in. 

SEAT WORK 

Study the examples in the next lesson, and write the parsing 
of all the prepositions and their objects, taking care to punctu- 
ate your work properly. 



90 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON LIU 

The Preposition and Its Object 

A phrase made up of a preposition and its object may be 
called a prepositional phrase. Observe that such a phrase 
is named in two ways : as to its structure, it is a prepositional 
phrase; as to its use, it may be an adverbial phrase. 

EXERCISE 

Analyze the following sentences. Parse the prepositions 
and objects by reading what you have written: — 

1. At daybreak we were suddenly awakened. 

2. An incessant tumult was heard throughout the night. 

3. In the morning a few fleecy clouds floated in the ca!m, blue 
summer sky. 

4. He stood by the desk. 

5. An old man died in the night. 

6. They are abundant in the forest. 

What is each adverbial phrase called from the standpoint 
of its structure? 

Classify each of the foregoing phrases as to, — ■ 

1. Its structure. 

2. Its use. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write a composition on Wild Flowers, on the same plan 
as in previous lessons. 

2. Write the following sentences correctly : — ■ 

1. It is said that Colonel dark, who visited the Holy Land last 
Summer, will be in cedar springs on monday, the 17th of february, 
and in grand rapids on tuesday. 

2. Knifes, loafs, laces, brushes, cameoes, spools, and pulleies lay 
upon the table in endless confusion. 



PHRASES DENOTING MANNER 91 



LESSON LIV 

Phrases Denoting Manner 

1. The two friends walked on in silence. 

2. She arranged everything with care. 

3. He listened with patience. 

In the first sentence, in silence tells how the friends walked. 
Silence names the state which they maintained while walking, 
and in shows the relation between that state and their walking. 
In silence means the same as silently. 

In the second sentence, with care tells how she arranged 
everything, and means the same as carefully. Care names the 
quality which she manifested in the work of arranging, and 
with shows the relation of that quality to the action. 

In the third sentence, with patience means the same as pa- 
tiently. Patience names the quality manifested in the act of 
listening, and with shows the relation of the quality to the 
action. 

EXERCISE 

1. In each of the following sentences, fill the blank with a 
group of words that tells how the action was done: — 

1. We waited . 6. He spoke . 

2. He read . 7. They dwelt . 

3. The general proceeded . 8. She studied . 

4. The storm raged . 9. The dying man wrote . 

5. He fought . 10. He listened . 

2. Introduce each of the following groups of words into a 
sentence predicating action : — 

1. in patience 4. in silence 

2. in peace 5. with fury 

3. with diligence 6. with deliberation 



92 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

3. Point out the adverbial phrases of manner, and tell what 
each one does. 

How is each phrase made up ? 

Try substituting single adverbs for some of the phrases. 

1. He moved with caution. 

2. They recited with remarkable promptness. 

3. We lived in constant fear. 

4. The brave men fought with unfaltering courag \ 

5. Comets move with great rapidity. 

6. The audience listened with attention. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy from some good book or magazine five 
short sentences containing an adverbial phrase telling when or 
how j and underline each phrase. 



LESSON LV 

Phrases Denoting Cause or Purpose 

1. Soldiers fight for fame. 

2. The poor man died of hunger. 

In the first sentence, for fame tells why the soldiers fight. 
In the second sentence, of hunger tells the cause of the 
man's dying. 

EXERCISE 

Point out what each phrase tells about the action : — 

1. They studied for examination. 

2. They ran for the prize. 

3. He blushed for shame. 

4. They wept for gladness. 

5. They were treated with cruelty. 

6. The two young friends talked with great earnestness. 

7. The gift was accepted with gratitude. 

8. The warm spring days were hailed with pleasure. 



PHRASES DENOTING CAUSE OR PURPOSE 93 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy sentences from the following that will show all 
the uses of the adverbial phrase, indexing the use of each. 

1. The woman fainted from fright. 

2. The party were traveling for pleasure. 

3. They walked for exercise. 

4. He worked for a living. 

5. They fought for liberty. 

6. The young man came for advice. 

7. They sang for joy. 

8. They shouted for help. 

9. The bell rang for tea. 

10. The vegetables were raised for the market. 

2. Write the analysis of sentences 1, 7, and 10. 

LESSON LVI 

Exercise on Adverbial Phrases 

•Classify the adverbial phrases as to structure and to use : — 

1. The steamer left on Friday. 

2. Some birds remain throughout the year. 

3. She behaved with propriety on every occasion. 

4. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. 

5. A strange sound issued from the cave. 

6. The anchor clung to the rocks with tenacity. 

7. The squirrel searches in the woods for acorns. 
-8. She died of sorrow. 

9. He sailed toward the sunset. 

10. The president stayed till Monday. 

11. The church stands by the river. 

12. He returned in September. 

13. She obeyed with alacrity. 

14. We are sailing down the Mississippi River. 

15. He speaks of the Lord on all suitable occasions. 

16. After tea the captain went on deck. 

17. Across the sea the white man came. 

18. He plays for amusement. 

19. He failed through inattention. 

20. She could not speak for weeping. 



94 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Write sentences containing adverbial phrases that tell, (1) 
when, (2) how long, (3) how often, (4) where, (5) whither, 
(6) whence, (7) how, (8) why, or for what purpose, (9) 
from what cause. 

LESSON LVII 

Exercise on Adverbial Phrases 

Classify the adverbial phrases, and point out in each phrase 
the preposition and its object: — 

1. In a lone valley the chieftain was buried. 

2. There I lingered till sunrise. 

3. The sound floated over the hills. 

4. Soon the drowsy bees were humming among the clover tops. 

5. In the gray old towers the bells were merrily ringing. 

6. The work was pursued with diligence. 

7. Many strange people came in from the country. 

8. The dam was swept away during the night. 

9. The weary soldier leaned against the wall. 

10. The woods are wrapped in deeper brown. 

11. The owl awakens from her dell. 

12. The fox is heard upon the fell. 

Does an adverbial phrase contain an adverb? 
Why do we classify it as adverbial? 
In what other way may we classify it? 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy the sentences above. 

2. In the first six, place marks of parenthesis around each 
adverbial phrase to show that it acts as a single unit in the 
sentence — does the work of an adverb. 

3. In the last six, draw a wavy line under the preposition, 
a straight line under its object, and a straight line under the 
verb whose action the phrase describes. 



QUALITIES AND LIMITATIONS SHOWN 95 

LESSON LVIII 

Qualities and Limitations Shown by Groups of Words 

1. Able men are needed. 

2. Men of ability are needed. 

In the first sentence, able tells what kind of men are needed. 

In the second sentence, of ability also tells what kind of 
men are needed. 

The word able and the phrase of ability do the same work- 
in the sentence — describe men. 

EXERCISE 

1. Compare the following expressions in the same way : — • 

1. Sad thoughts. 1. Sorrowful days. 

2. Thoughts of sadness. 2. Days of sorrow. 

1. Joyful moments. 1. Perilous times. 

2. Moments of joy. 2. Times of peril. 

The two forms of expression do not always have exactly 
the same meaning, as will be seen from the following ex- 
amples : — ■ 

1. Troublesome waves. 1. Peevish children. 

2. Waves of trouble. 2. Children of peevishness. 

1. Free thoughts. 

2. Thoughts of freedom. 

2. Point out the phrases that describe, and tell what they 
describe : — 

1. Men of industrious habits are prosperous. 

2. A young man of good morals is respected. 

3. A timid deer, with white feet, fed in the meadow. 

4. A cloud of darkness settled over us. 

5. Scenes of glory opened before him. 

3. Try substituting a single word for some of the phrases 
above. 



96 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

37. The phrase that does the work of an adjective b called 
an adjective phrase; and, in general, a word or group added 
to a noun to limit it in any way is said to be an adjective 
element. 

SEAT WORK 

Find adjective phrases in the next lesson, change as many 
of them as you can to single adjectives, then rewrite the sen- 
tences containing the changes. 



LESSON LIX 

Adjective Phrases 

Tell what each adjective phrase describes, and of what each 
phrase is composed : — ■ 

1. Men of great wisdom seldom err. 

2. Habits of industry are important. 

3. Such deeds of kindness are appreciated. 

4. Words of tenderness are precious. 

5. Her tones of sympathy were unheeded. 

6. Men of ability are needed in such an enterprise. 

7. Songs of devotion were heard in the camp. 

8. The surly chief spoke in tones of anger. 

9. Thoughts of sadness pressed upon me. 

Does an adjective phrase contain an adjective? 
Why, then, do we call it an adjective phrase? 
By what other name may we call it? 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy from other books five sentences con- 
taining adjective phrases, and ten containing various kinds of 
adverbial phrases ; inclose each phrase in marks of parenthesis 
to show that it is only a single element in the sentence. 

2. See if you can change some of the phrases to single 
words of the same meaning. 



NOUNS DENOTING OWNERSHIP 



97 



LESSON LX 

Nouns Denoting Ownership 

Make each of the following expressions part of a sen- 
tence : — • 



1. John's knife. 

2. Philip's kite. 

3. Julia's glove. 

4. Ellen's new book. 

5. Father's cane. 

6. Mother's spectacles. 

7. Uncle John's white horses. 

8. Aunt Mary's blue dishes. 

9. Jacob's cattle. 

10. Laban's images. 

11. Jones's mill. 

12. Perkins's store. 

13. Mr. Knox's shop. 

14. The old man's garden. 



15. Judge Graves's farm. 

16. General Washington's sword. 

17. Bonaparte's dress. 

18. The children's toys. 

19. The men's overcoats. 

20. A nation's wealth. 

21. The marquis's mantle. 

22. The ladies' hats. 

23. The boy's sled. 

24. The boys' hats. 

25. The robbers' pistols. 

26. The hunter's dog. 

27. The scholar's task. 

28. The poor man's sorrow. 



In the first example John's tells whose knife; in the second, 
Philip's tells whose kite ; etc. 

38, Each of these words tells who owns, or who possesses, 
something, and is therefore said to denote possession. You 
will notice that each of the words used in this way is changed 
by adding to it the apostrophe and s ( 9 s). This addition is 
called the possessive sign, because it is a sign that the word 
denotes possession. 

Notice that in example 22, ladies' has only an apostrophe 
added to it. This is all we add to any plural noun ending in 
s, as will be seen also in examples 24 and 25. 

When the plural noun ends in any other letter than s, we 
add to it both the apostrophe and s 3 as in examples 18 and 19. 

When a singular noun ends in s, we usually add both the 
apostrophe and s, as in examples 11, 12, IS, and 21. In a few 
nouns, however, when the added s would make an unpleasant 
7 



98 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

combination or repetition of sounds, only an apostrophe is 
added; as, princess', Moses', Jesus' , conscience' sake. 

A very good general rule to follow is to omit the s when 
the noun already has two distinct s or z sounds one of which 
is final. Observe the examples just given. But the ear is our 
chief reliance; for example, Cyrus sounds well with the s 
added; as, Cyrus's decree; while Xerxes' s army is intolerable. 

EXERCISE 

1. Which of the following nouns denote ownership? Tell 
how the possessive sign of each is formed. 

1. The captain's watch was stolen. 

2. Charles's ring was found in Mary's box. 

3. Ellen's bird escaped from the cage. 

4. The flour was bought at Jones's mill. 

5. Frank's boat was overturned. 

6. Mr. Smith's farm is productive. 

7. The Ladies' Home Journal is much read. 

8. Jethro was Moses' father-in-law. 

9. Boys' pockets are seldom empty. 
10. Cyrus's decree is found in the Bible. 

2. As you pass along the street, notice in shop or store 
names the possessive forms of nouns. Make a collection of 
these and bring them to the class. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Add the possessive sign to the following names, and 
then use them in sentences : — 

Joseph, Silas, Caesar, Mr. Barnes, General Knox, men, womc.i, 
teachers, farmers, Professor Richards, princess. 

2. Select and copy from some book or magazine twenty 
nouns having the possessive sign and denoting possession. 
Note how each sign is formed. 



CASE, NOMINATIVE AND POSSESSIVE 99 

LESSON LXI 

Case, Nominative and Possessive 

1. The captain is a brave man. 

2. The captain's watch was stolen. 

Captain, in the first sentence, is used as subject, and has the 
ordinary name form. 

In the second sentence, it is used to tell whose watch is 
meant. 

When used to tell whose — to denote possession — a noun 
changes its form as noticed in the preceding lesson. 

39. The ordinary form, which a noun has when used as 
subject, is called the nominative case, which means simoly 
name form. 

40. The changed form which a noun has when used to 
denote possession, is called the possessive case, which means 
simply possessive form. 

EXERCISE 

In the following sentences, point out which nouns are in 
the nominative case and which are in the possessive case, and 
tell what each form denotes : — 

1. The governors elegant mansion is much admired. 

2. Mr. Bliss's fruit was stolen by some roguish boys. 

3. That boy's sled was bought at Wright's store. 

4. Cyrus's campaign was successful. 

5. Columbus's third voyage was made in 1498. 

6. The book was burned in the martyr's hand. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the possessive of the following nouns, and then use 
each in a sentence : — 

Larks, Dr. Lucas, sisters, commander, merchants, curfew, battle, 
Colonel Church, Mr. Fish, J. Marks. 



100 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON LXII 

Parsing Nouns in the Possessive Case 

Parse the nouns in the nominative and the possessive 
forms, according to the models : — 

1. The children's toys are expensive. 

2. The queen's barge was already proceeding up the river. 

3. On Esek Harden's oaken floor, lay the ears of unhusked corn. 

4. The rook's nest was destroyed. 

5. William's farm is small. 

6. Rufus's garden is well watered. 

7. Philip's dwelling fronted on the street. 

8. The captives' plaintive cries were heard throughout the night. 

9. The Romans landed on Albion's shore. 

10. The young man's attention was fixed on the monster. 

What is the meaning of the term nominative? 
How does a noun in the nominative case differ in form 
from a noun used as object. 

MODELS 

Ellen's bird escaped. 

Ellen's is a noun, proper, third person, singular number, 
feminine gender; it is used to tell whose bird is meant, and is 
therefore put in the possessive case. 

Bird is a noun, com., 3d, sing.; it is used as the subject of 
the sentence, and is therefore put in the nominative case. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Think of things owned by different members of your 
family or by your friends or acquaintances, and write a sen- 
tence about each one, using the person's name in the posses- 
sive form. 

2. Underline each possessive form, marking it P, and each 
nominative form, marking it N. 



POSSESSIVE NOUNS DENOTING KINDRED 101 

LESSON LXIII 

Possessive Nouns Denoting Kindred or Authorship 

1. Frank's brother is sick. 

2. Webster's Dictionary is much used. 

In the first sentence, the word Frank's tells whose brother 
is meant, but does not show possession; for Frank does not 
own his brother — his brother is not his property. It is not 
possession, really, that is here shown, but kindred. 

In the second sentence, Webster's names the author of the 
dictionary, and not the owner, for Webster has long been dead. 

41. These words that denote kindred, authorship, etc., 
take the possessive sign because they answer the question 
whose, just as words do that denote real possession. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the possessive forms, and tell what each one 

denotes : — 

1. Moody's sermons are much admired. 

* 2. Bell's Grammar is used in this school. 

3. George's father resides in Boston. 

4. Ellen's uncle went to India. 

5. Scott's poems are read with delight. 

6. The mat was braided by the chieftain's daughter. 

7. James's mother was reading thoughtfully. 

8. The young Hebrew rode in Pharaoh's chariot. 

9. The article was published in Harper's Magazine. 

10. Mr. Ellis's farm was sold on a mortgage. 

11. Joseph's brothers were cruel. 

12. The article was found in Quackenbos's Rhetoric. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy from something you read, two nouns 
denoting kindred, two nouns denoting authorship, copying also 
the noun with which each one is connected. 



102 ''"" ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

2. Write five sentences of your own, each containing a 
noun denoting ownership, kindred, or authorship. 



LESSON LXIV 

Possessive Nouns Denoting Origin, or Fitness 

1. The sun's rays. 

2. Children's shoes. 

By the sun's rays we mean rays that come from the sun. 

Children's shoes are shoes of the proper size and shape for 
children. They may never be owned or worn by them. 

42. Possessive nouns are often used in this way to denote 
the origin, adaptation, or fitness, of things. 

EXERCISE 

Examine the possessive forms, and tell what each one de- 
notes : — 

1. Gentlemen's clothing is substantial. 

2. Ladies' gloves are expensive. 

3. The moon's pale light fell on the lonely grave. 

4. The bird's song echoed through the vale. 

5. The old man's thoughts were suddenly interrupted. 

6. Henrietta's sister is coming in July. 

7. The ruddy camp fire's glow was mirrored in the stream. 

8. The fond mother's prayers ascended to heaven 

9. From the distant grove comes the cuckoo's song. 

10. The merry skaters were distinctly seen by the bonfire's glow- 
ing light. 

11. Carpenter's tools are indispensable in such work. 

12. The whole earth is enlivened by the sun's radiant beams. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy a sentence, and write one of your own, 
for each kind of possessive noun you have studied so far. 

2. Underline the possessive form. 



POSSESSIVE NOUNS DENOTING MEASURE 103 

LESSON LXV 

Possessive Nouns Denoting Measure 

A month's pay was advanced. 

In this sentence, month's, although it has the possessive 
sign, is not used to tell whose pay was advanced, but the meas- 
ure of time required for earning the amount paid. 

Month's is said to be in the possessive case, because it has 
the possessive sign, and because it denotes something a little 
like possession, for a month's pay is the pay belonging to a 
month of labor. 

43. So also a noun in possessive form may denote meas- 
ure of weight, of length, of distance, etc. 

EXERCISE 

Tell what each possessive form denotes : — 

1. He was held at arm's length. 

2. That sketch was drawn by a painter's hand. 

3. American independence was gained by a seven years' war. 

4. A ten miles' ride was taken before breakfast. 

5. A lion's roar was heard in the forest. 

6. The child's arm was crushed. 

7. Twenty pounds' weight was added to each captive's burden. 

8. The cattle are feeding on the hill's gentle slope. 

Remarks. — In the first sentence, arm's denotes the meas- 
ure of the length ; it is the measure of an arm. 

In sentence 3, years' denotes measures of time, and seven 
tells how many such measures are required to measure the 
length of the war. 

In sentence 4, miles' denotes measures of distance, and ten 
shows how many such measures are required to measure the 
length of the ride. 

In sentence 7, pounds? denotes measures of weight, and 
twenty tells how many such measures are required to equal 
the weight of the burden. 



104 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Write a composition on Food, including answers to the fol- 
lowing questions : — 

1. What are the chief articles of food in our country? 

2. What articles of food do we get from other parts of 
the world? 

3. The people of foreign lands use what kinds of food 
that are not used here? 

4. How do savages obtain their food? 

5. How did Adam and Eve obtain their food before they 
sinned? 

6. Did they have any work to do? 

7. How do people obtain their food in very cold countries ? 

8. How easily can people get food in some very hot 
countries ? 

9.. What food evils do people sometimes have to suffer in 
hot countries? 

10. Tell some of the different ways in which food is pre- 
pared in various parts of the world. 

LESSON LXVI 

Possessive Pronouns 

1. My path is lost. 

2. Your kindness is appreciated. 

3. His father is dead. 

Tn the first sentence above, my alludes to the speaker, and 
shows zuhose path is lost. 

In the second sentence, your alludes to the person spoken 
to, and shows whose kindness is meant ; etc. 

QUESTIONS 

1. If I want to represent a home as belonging to myself, 
what pronoun must I employ ? 



POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 105 

2. How should I represent it as belonging to myself and 
others associated with me? 

3. How should I represent it as belonging to some person 
spoken to? To several persons spoken to? 

4. What pronoun would you use in showing that the home 
belongs to a man? To a woman? 

5. What pronoun would you use in showing that it belongs 
to two or more men? To two or more women? To a man 
and a woman ? To men and women ? 

6. When we wish to represent a thing as belonging to some- 
thing that has no sex, we use the pronoun its. 

Example.— The tree is gigantic; its diameter is over ten feet, and 
its top towers far above the steeple. 

7. Sometimes the name of the thing possessed is under- 
stood; as, — 

I took his umbrella, and left mine [i. e., my umbrella]. 

When the noun is understood, we use mine instead of my; 
ours instead of our; yours instead of your; and theirs instead 
of their. 

So we have a complete set of words [pronouns] used to 
allude to the possessor. 
They are, — 

- my or mine, our or ours, 

thy or thine, your or yours, 

his, her or hers, 

its, their or theirs. 

44. Since these words always denote possession, they need 
no possessive sign, so the *s is never added to them. 

EXERCISES 

1. Make each of the preceding words a part of a sentence, 
and tell whether it denotes ownership, authorship, origin, fit- 
ness, a part, kindred, etc. 

2. Analyze a few of the sentences thus formed. 



106 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

QUESTIONS 

1. What words may be used to allude to the speaker? 

2. Which of these should be used as the subject of a sen- 
tence ? 

3. Which to denote possession ? 

4. Which as the object of a preposition? 

5. Can / be used as the object of a preposition? 

6. Can it denote possession? 

7. Can me be used as subject? 

8. Can my be used as subject? 

9. Can me denote possession ? 

45. / is said to be in the nominative case, or nominative 
form, because it is used as subject, the same as the name form 
of the noun. (See Sec. 39.) 

Since my is used to denote possession, it is said to be in 
the possessive case, or possessive form, like that of the noun. 
(See Sec. 40.) 

Since me is used as the object of a preposition, it is said to 
be in the objective case, or objective form. 

SEAT WORK 

Study the sentences given in the next lesson, and write 
the parsing of the nouns and pronouns, using the abbreviated 
form shown in the models. Be careful to punctuate correctly. 

LESSON LXVII 

Parsing Possessive Pronouns 

1. What words may allude to a person spoken of? 

2. Which of these words may be used as the subject of a 
sentence ? 

3. Which may be used to show possession? 

4. Which may be used as the object of a preposition? 

5. In what case is he? him? his? her? she? 



PARSING POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 107 

EXERCISE 

Read your written parsing of the nouns and pronouns : — 

1. My house is small. 

2. His eyes were swollen. 

3. Her thoughts were vain. 

4. Milton's writings are extensively read. 

5. The farmer's cattle are quietly resting. 

6. My mother's Bible is lying on her lap. 

7. I rode through the forest. 

8. Their joy was clearly shown in their faces. 

9. The mountain is proud of its snowy wreath. 
10. We are often deceived by our desires. 

MODELS 

Our days are numbered. 

Our is a pronoun, first person, plural number, and includes 
both sexes; it is used to tell whose days are numbered, and is 
therefore put in the possessive case: 

Abbreviated form to be used in writing : — 

Our. — Pron., 1st per., plu. ; tells whose days are numbered ; 
poss. case. 

Your kind offer is gratefully accepted. 

Your. — Pron., 2d per., sing, or plu. ; tells whose offer is 
accepted ; poss. case. 

SEAT WORK 

Write what you have learned of the different forms of pro- 
nouns, and their uses, illustrating each form or use by pro- 
nouns in the following sentences : — 

1. My father's traits of character are repeated in me. 

2. Your writings are received with uncommon favor. 

3. Our good resolutions are often broken. 

4. A father's blessing rested on his child. 

5. For days he wandered by the river's brink. 

6. On its margin the great forest stood. 

7. Our harps were left by Babel's stream, 



108 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON LXVIII 

Possession Denoted by a Phrase 

1. Solomon's wisdom is proverbial. 

2. The wisdom of Solomon is proi'erbial. 

These two sentences are exactly alike in meaning*. In the 
first, Solomon's tells whose wisdom is meant, and in the second, 
of Solomon tells the same thing. Solomon names the pos- 
sessor; and the possessive sign in the first sentence, and the 
word of in the second, show the relation of Solomon to wis- 
dom, — the relation of possession. 

46. A phrase that denotes possession may be called a pos- 
sessive phrase. 

EXERCISE 

In the following sentences change the possessive sign from 
's to of, or from of to 's: — 

1. The yellow leaves of autumn fell gently on the stream. 

2. Childhood's happy days are remembered with pleasure. 

3. The farm of Mr. Smith is very productive. 

4. The word of the Lord came to the prophet. 

5. Solomon's temple was built on Mt. Moriah. 

6. The troops of Washington were poorly clad. 

7. An eagle's nest was found near the place. 

8. The barge of the queen was already proceeding up the river. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy the sentences below, and underline neatly each 
phrase denoting possession. 

2. Change the adjective phrases to nouns in the possessive 
case : — 

1. The ripples of the rivulet are flashing in the light 

2. Into the valley of Death rode the six hundred. 

3. Tis written in the book of fate. 

4. The curious ways of birds were well known to him. 



POSSESSION DENOTED BY A PHRASE 109 

5. The attention of the tavern politician? was soon attracted by 
the appearance of Rip. 

6. The fruit of the hawthorn, black and red, was gathered in 
those autumn days. 

LESSON LXIX 

Phrases Denoting Origin or Authorship 

Review Lessons 63 and 64, then examine the adjective 
phrases in the sentences below, and tell what each one de- 
notes : — 

1. The rays of the sun are reflected by the moon. 

2. The smoke of the battle is clearing away. 

3. The twitter of birds was heard in the grove. 

4. Softly came the murmur of distant music. 

5. The writings of Milton are sublime. 

6. Midst the roar of the storm a faint cry was heard. 

7. The arguments of Locke were clearly stated. 

MODELS 

Of the sun tells what rays are meant, by denoting origin. 
Sun names the body that produces the rays, and of shows the 
relation of the sun to the rays. 

Of Milton tells whose writings are meant. Milton names 
the author, and of shows the relation of Milton to the writings. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Explain in writing what the possessive phrases in sen- 
tences 2, 3, and 4 above denote. 

2. Rewrite sentences 1, 3, 5, and 7 , changing the adjective . 
phrases to possessive nouns. 

THOUGHT GEMS 

The ants teach lessons of patient industry, of perseverance 
in surmounting obstacles, of providence for the future. 

The birds are teachers of the sweet lesson of trust. — Mrs. 
B t G. White. 



110 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON LXX 

Phrases Denoting Material; or the Whole, of Which 
Something Is a Part 

In the first sentence below, of brass tells what kind of 
pillars supported the curtains. Brass names the material 
of which the pillars were made, and of shows the relation of 
the brass to the pillars. 

In the second sentence, of the Amazon tells to what the 
mouth belongs. Amazon names the river of which the mouth 
is a part, and of shows the relation between the Amazon and 
the mouth. 

EXERCISE 

Describe the use of the adjective phrases: — 

1. The curtains were supported by pillars of brass. 

2. The mouth of the Amazon is broad. 

3. A wedge of gold was found in Achan's tent. 

4. The rising sun was seen upon the mountain's brow. 

5. A pillar of fire stood over the tabernacle. 

6. The advance guard of the British Army encamped near the 
placid river. 

7. The masthead of the vessel was seen above the waves. 

8. Steps of marble led up to the palace door. 

9. The top of the rrfountain was capped with snow. 

10. A ladder of ropes was lowered from the deck of the ship. 

11. The ten commandments were written with the finger of God 
upon tables of stone. 

12. The hind legs of the giraffe are shorter than the fore legs. 

13. Long festoons of moss hung from the trees. 

SEAT WORK 

Explain in writing the different cases, or forms, of pro- 
nouns ; tell when they are used, and give examples. 



PHRASES DENOTING MEASURE 111 

LESSON LXXI 

Phrases Denoting Measure 

Review Lesson 65, then examine the adjective phrases, 
and tell what each one denotes: — 

1. By a pleasant ride of twelve miles, we were brought to the beau- 
tiful residence of my friend. 

2. They were prepared for a stay of several weeks. 

3. Their freedom was purchased by a war of thirty long years. 

4. A channel of five hundred feet was cut through a bed of rock. 

5. A weight of ten pounds was attached to the end of the lever. 

6. We were equipped for a journey of a thousand miles. 

7. The children of- Israel were doomed to a journey of forty years 
in the wilderness. 

In sentence 5, of ten pounds tells how heavy the weight 
was. Pounds names the kind of measure employed in esti- 
mating the weight. Ten shows how many such measures of 
weight equal the weight attached to the end of the lever. Of 
shows the relation between the pounds and the weight. 

In sentence 4, of five hundred feetteMs how long the chan- 
nel was. Feet names the kind of measure. Five hundred 
shows how many such measures are required to equal the 
length of the channel. Hundred names one of the great or- 
ders of numbers, and five tells how many of these must be 
taken. Of shows the relation between the feet and the channel. 

SEAT WOF.K 

Examine the adjective phrases in the sentences below, and 
tell in writing what each one denotes : — 

1. The dews of night descended on the lonely grave. 

2. The winds of autumn wail sadly through the naked trees. 

3. The graves of the warriors were dug in the vale. 

4. The bright flowers of summer are faded and dead. 

5. The sweet songs of birds were heard in the grove. 

6. The fruit of that land was good. 



112 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON LXXII 

Exercise an Phrases 

What do the phrases in these sentences tell ? 

1. The lay of the minstrel was heard in the bower. 

2. In the pride of his strength came the proud Briton on. 

3. Two large ships were sunk in the harbor. 

4. A box of children's shoes was sent to the destitute settlers. 

5. The philosophers of that day excelled in wisdom. 

6. Morning's rosy light is dawning upon the mountain's brow. 

7. A line of breakers stretched across the entrance to the bay. 

8. On the third day of September, we arrived at our new home 
in the fertile valley of this beautiful stream. 

9. Acts of kindness are not wholly lost on stubborn hearts. 

10. From infancy he was schooled in habits of industry. 

11. The doctor's tones of sympathy comforted the suffering man. 

12. A bird with a yellow topknot was sitting on the limb of a 
dead tree. 

13. Real courtesy is a grace of the heart. 

14. In the early morning the bee searches for honey. 

Remarks. — In sentence 2, in the pride of his strength tells 
how the Briton came on, by telling what quality he manifested 
in coming. Pride names the quality, and in shows its relation 
to the act of coming. 

Of his strength tells what kind of pride he manifested. 
Strength names the quality in which he took pride, and of 
shows the relation between strength and pride. 

In sentence 5, of that day tells what philosophers were 
meant. Day names a definite division of time, but is here used 
figuratively to denote a period in the world's history. 

SEAT WORK 

Write out what you know about adverbs and adverbial 
phrases. 



THE MEANING OF POSSESSIVE NOUNS 113 

LESSON LXXIII 

Distinguishing the Meaning of Possessive Nouns 

1. The President's reception zvas very cordial. 

2. My mother's picture has been lost. 

In the first sentence, the meaning of the President's recep- 
tion may be the reception that he gave or the reception that 
was given him. 

In the second sentence, my mother's picture may mean a 
picture of my mother or a picture owned by her. 

47. To remove doubt about the meaning, it is best to say 
the President's reception when we mean the one he gave, 
and to say the reception of the President when we mean the 
one given him. Likewise we make the meaning clear if we 
say my mother's picture when we mean one owned by her, and 
say the picture of my mother when we mean her own likeness. 

EXERCISE 

1. What two meanings may the following expressions, 
have : — 

1. Andre's capture. 6. My teacher's praise. 

2. Burgoyne's defeat. 7. Raphael's picture. 

3. My father's reception. 8. Mother's love. 

4. Your sister's care. 9. Johnson's trial. 

5. The enemy's repulse. 10. Father's advice. 

2. Tell how the two meanings of the expressions above 
may be distinguished. 

SEAT WORK 

Write two sentences for each of the expressions above, one 
using the possessive noun and the other the same noun with 
of. Be careful to have the wording of the sentences fit the 
meaning of the form you use. 

8 



114 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON LXXIV 

Distinguishing Forms of the Personal Pronoun 

The various forms of the personal pronoun should be care- 
fully distinguished in speaking and writing. There are only 
six of them which have different forms for the nominative 
and the objective, besides one form in -self, as follows: — - 



NOMINATIV" 


OBJECTIVE 


REFLEXIVE 01 
EMPHATIC 


I 


me 


myself 


we 


us 


ourselves 


thou 


thee 


thyself 


he 


him 


himself 


she 


her 


herself 


they 


them 


themselves 



48. The nominative form is used as subject of a com- 
plete verb, and in predicate with a verb or a participle. 

Examples. — / shall leave tomorrow. I do not think it is 
she. Its being he should make no difference. 

49. The objective form is used as object of a verb or a 
preposition, and as subject of an infinitive. 

Examples. — I saw him on the street. Did you get a letter 
from her today ? My mother wishes me to come home. 

50. The objective form is also used in predicate with the 
infinitive to be when the infinitive has a subject of its own; 
otherwise the nominative is used. 

Examples. — They took me to be him. I knew it to be her. 
My brother was thought to be /. 

51. The form in -self has two uses: one to denote empha- 
sis, called the emphatic or intensive use ; the other to reflect 
back to the subject, called the reflexive use. 

Examples. — I will do it myself (intensive). Father him- 
self will come (intensive). She helped herself through school 
(reflexive). 



FORMS OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN 115 

52. After the various forms of to be the nominative is 
used in every case except the infinitive with a subject of its 

own, as pointed out above. 

Examples. — I hope it is she. They declared it was he. 
I do not believe it was they. If any one is on time, it will 
be /. It was supposed to be he. If you were I, would you go? 
You are mistaken about its being she. 

Remarks. — Though personal pronouns are very small 
words and only few in number, yet they are very frequently 
used. On account of changing their form more often than 
nouns, errors in their use are very common. This lesson should 
be studied with great care, for the correct use of pronouns is 
a mark of culture. 

EXERCISE 

Insert the proper form of pronoun : — 
I, me, myself 

1. Did he think it was ? 

2. Between you and , that is not fair. 

3. Father wants Robert and to stay in school. 

4. If any boy tries to get his lesson well, it will be . 

5. That article was written by . 

6. Please permit John and to study together. 

7. May Grace and go home? 

8. Who is there? Only . 

9. If I can bring to the task, I will attend to that . 






We, us, ourselves 

1. They are wiser than 

2. It might have been who (whom) you heard. 

3. boys are enjoying our wood work very much. 

4. Our cousins and are going for an outing. 

5. There will be a thousand miles between mother and- 

6. must train in right habits, 

7. He took a picture of three -girls in a boat. 

8. That house will be finished if we have to do it . 



116 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks properly : - 
He, him, himself 

1. Boys like you and — — ought to know better. 

2. Every one was on time but James and . 

3. She writes better than . 

4. If anybody is on time, it is sure to be . 

5. Brother declared it to be , but I knew better. 

6. Its being should make no difference. 

7. If any man has tried to do his duty, it has been . 

8. He hurt by talking too much. 

They, them, themselves 

1. We shall soon be as far as . 

2. I can hardly believe it was who did it. 

3. It is different for both you and . 

4. I thought the people we just passed might be . 

5. Farmers often have to harvest their crops because they 

can get no help. 

6. They are surest of help who help . 

7. No parents are less to blame than . 

8. Henry declared it to be . 

9. I told all my friends about it, among the rest. 

10. Whom can I trust if not ? 



LESSON LXXV 

Qualities Modified 

The examples given below show how qualities are modified. 

Analyze as in preceding lessons, and say that wonderfully 
tells how clear the tones were; very tells how tall the trees 
were, showing that they possess the quality of tallness (height) 
in a remarkable degree; etc. 

53. These words are classed as adverbs, and parsed the 
same as those that modify actions, except that they are added 
to adjectives instead of being added to verbs. 



QUALITIES MODIFIED 117 

EXERCISE 

Tell how the qualities are modified : — 

1. Those tones are wonderfully clear. 

2.. The redwood trees of California are very tall. 

3. The tones of the old violin were charmingly sweet. 

4. Cyrus was wonderfully expert in the chase. 

5. The beast was great, and terrible, and strong exceedingly. 

6. The kingdom is partly strong and partly broken. 

7. The young chief of the Onondagas was fleet in the chase and 
strong in battle. 

In sentence 6, partly tells in what way the kingdom was 
strong, — it is strong in some parts and broken in others. 

In sentence 7, in the chase tells where the chief was fleet. 
Chase names the exercise in which his fleetness was especially 
manifested, etc. In battle tells where his strength was espe- 
cially manifested. Battle names a conflict between armies, and 
in shows the relation between the battle and the strength of 
the chief. 

SEAT WORK 

Write a composition on the same plan as heretofore, asking 
your teacher to suggest a topic. 



LESSON LXXVI 

Action Which the Subject Performs and an 
Object Receives 

1. The child is eating an apple. 

2. John saws wood. 

3. Helen studies grammar. 

1. What is predicated in the first sentence? 

2. Who performs the action ? 

3. What receives it? 



118 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

4. What receives the action in the second sentence? 

5. What receives the action in the third sentence ? 

EXERCISE 

1. Fill the blank in each of the following sentences with 
a word showing what receives the action : — 

1. Carpenters build . 9. Indolent people hate . 

2. I hear 10. Mary studies . 

3. I like . 11. Farmers raise . 

4. Good children obey . 12. Boys write . 

5. Merchants sell . 13. The sun warms . 

6. Snow covers . 14. Lucy reads . 

7. The hunters killed . 15. The idler wastes . 

8. The waves washed . 16. My father bought . 

2. Change each of the foregoing sentences so that the word 
showing what receives the action will be made the subject of 
the sentence. 

3. Tell what performs the action and what receives it : — 

1. Some birds build their nests on the ground. 

2. Moses received the tables of stone on Mount Sinai. 

3. The bright waves washed the pebbly shore. 

4. Abraham left the land of his fathers. 

5. The merry songs of birds filled the air. 

6. The pages of thy book I read. 

7. They clasped his neck. 

8. He saw the fire of the midnight camp. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write the analysis of sentences 2, 3, and 4 according to 
this model : — 

MODEL 

Some birds build their nests on the ground. 

1. Birds is the subject of this sentence. 

2. Build is the predicate. 

3. Some shows that birds, as used in this sentence, does not 
mean all birds, but only a certain class, probably not numerous. 



ACTION PERFORMED AND RECEIVED 119 

4. Nests shows zvhat the birds build. It tells what receives 
the action. 

5. Their alludes to birds, and thus tells whose nests are 
meant. 

6. On the ground tells where the nests are built. 

2. Rewrite the first five sentences so that the word showing 
what receives the action will be made the subject. 



LESSON LXXVII 

Action Study 

Study the action as performed and as received : — 

1. He saw once more his dark-eyed queen. 

2. Odors of orange flowers reached him. 

3. Loud he sang the psalm of David. 

4. The voice of his devotion 

Filled my soul with strange emotion. 

5. An earthquake's arm of might 
Broke their dungeon gates at night. 

6. He heard at times a horse's tramp 
And a bloodhound's distant bay. 

7. In happy homes he saw the light 

Of household fires, so warm and bright. 

Remarks, — Take once more together as an adverb. It 
probably, comes from the adverbial phrase for one more time. 

54. In sentence 5, the earthquake is represented as having 
an arm of might, and breaking with it the gate of the dungeon. 
We speak of the earthquake as though it were a person. This 
is called a figure of personification. We say that it has an 
arm of might because it has such great power, shaking the 
earth as it does, rending rocks asunder, and upheaving islands 
in the sea. The meaning is that the earthquake so shook the 
prison that the doors flew open. 



120 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

In sentence 6, at times tells when he heard the horse's tramp 
and the bloodhound's bay. Times names certain points, or 
short periods, with intervals between. If he had heard the 
sounds all the while, continuously, there would have been only 
one time of hearing them; but since there were intervals when 
he did not hear them, he heard them at times. 

55. A capital letter should begin the first word of every 
line of poetry. 

SEAT WORK 

Write — 

1. Three sentences that predicate quality. 

2. Three that predicate action not received by anything. 

3. Three that predicate action received by the subject. 

4. Three that predicate action performed by the subject and 
received by something else. 



LESSON LXXVIII 

Regular and Irregular Verbs 

Lightnings flash. 

What is predicated in this sentence? Is the action rep- 
resented as present or past at the time of mentioning it? 

Lightnings flashed. 

In this sentence, is the action represented as present or 
past at the time of mentioning it? 

Which verbs in the following sentences represent the action 
as present? Which represent it as past? 

1. Torrents roared. 6. Birds seek shelter. 

2. Thunders roll. 7. The storm beats. 

3. Waves dash. 8. The eagle screamed. 

4. Trees fell. 9. The wind blows. 

5. People fled. 10. The ocean roars. 



REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS 121 

56. A verb that represents action as present at the time 
of mentioning it, is said to be in the present tense. 

57. A verb that represents action as past at the time of 
mentioning it, is said to be in the past tense. 

EXERCISE I 

1. Tell the tense of the verb in each of the following 
sentences : — 

1. The foxgloves stand in a long black row. 

2. The slender swallows fly joyously about the eaves of the old 
barn on the hill. 

3. The snow fell fast. 

4. The sheep are feeding on the hillside. 

5. The children swung on the old gate. 

6. Across the stepping-stones we passed. 

7. A graveled walk led to the door. 

8. The full creek rushes noisily along. 

9. Here a row of doves sit from morn till night. 
10. We sat down in the chimney nook. 

2. What is the past tense of walk? look? burn? help? 
Write each of these verbs in the present tense. 
Write each in the past tense. What have you added to 
the present tense in changing it to the past? 

58. A verb that forms its past tense by adding ed to the 
present, is called a regular verb. 

What is the past tense of go? ride? see? feel? sing? find? 
write? 

Does there seem to be any regular way of forming the past 
tense of these verbs? 

59. Such verbs are called irregular because they do not 
form their past tense in the regular way, by adding ed to the 
present. 

It is necessary to give careful attention to the forms of ir- 
regular verbs, for most of them are used very frequently. A 
list for reference is found in the Appendix. 



122 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



EXERCISE II 

Which of the following verbs are regular? 

regular ? 



do 

climb 
fight 
wait 



seek 
sit 
fall 
wander 



fill 
fling 
freeze 
think 



rest 
chirp 
flee 
fold 



call 

fly 

play 
sleep 



Which ir- 



swim 
stand 
whisper 
seaich 



SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy neatly ten sentences each having a reg- 
ular verb in the present tense. 

2. Select and copy neatly ten sentences each having an ir- 
regular verb in the past tense. 



LESSON LXXIX 

Transitive Verbs ; Voice 

Birds build nests. 
What is predicated in this sentence? 
What performs the action? 
What receives the action? 

Answer the same questions in regard to the following 
sentences : — 

1. Julia writes letters. 4. Cannibals eat men. 

2. Bees make honey. 5. Farmers till the ground. 

3. Steam propels boats. 6. Mills grind wheat. 

60. A verb that represents an action as performed by the 
subject and received by something else, is a transitive verb, 
in the active voice. It is called transitive, because the act 
passes from the one who performs it to some person or thing 
that receives it, and transitive means passing. It is said to be 
in the active voice because the subject acts, or performs the 
action. 



TRANSITIVE VERBS; VOICE 123 

The letter was written by Julia, 

In this sentence, Julia performs the act of writing, and the 
letter receives it, just as in sentence 1 above; but in this sen- 
tence the name of the thing that receives the action is the 
subject, while in the former sentence, the name of the one who 
performs the action is the subject. 

61. When the action is received by the subject, the verb 
is said to be transitive and in the passive voice. It is said 
to be transitive because the action passes from the one who 
performs it to something which receives it. It is said to be in 
the passive voice because the subject does not act, but receives 
the action; it is not active, but passive. 

We see, then, that a verb is transitive whenever it repre- 
sents the action as passing to anything, or received by any- 
thing; and that a transitive verb is in the active voice when 
the subject performs the action, and in the passive voice when 
the subject receives the action. 

When the subject performs the action and something else 
receives it, the name of the thing that receives the action is 
said to be the object of the verb. 

EXERCISE 

1. Make each of the following verbs the predicate of a 
sentence in which the subject performs an action, and an ob- 
ject receives it: — 

Take, seek, strike, build, buy, cultivate, study, till, leave, deceive, 
kill, punish, send, open, rend, break, gather, discover. 

2. Make each of the verbs above the predicate of a sen- 
tence in which the subject receives the action. 

Suggestion. — Of course the form of the verb will have to be 
changed, and the copula used before it. 

SEAT WORK 

Select and copy neatly five sentences with a transitive verb, 
and write five of your own. Index the active and passive 
verbs. 



124 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON LXXX 

Intransitive Verbs 

1. The bird sings in the tree. 

2. The flozuers bloom in the garden. 

3. Beasts roam in the forest. 

What is predicated by the verb in each of these sentencer . 

Is the action received by an object? 

Is the action received by the subject? 

62. When the action is not represented as being received 
by anything, the verb is said to be intransitive, that is, not 
transitive. 

EXERCISE 

1. Make ten sentences, each having an intransitive verb as 
predicate. 

2. When is a verb transitive ? 

3. When intransitive? 

4. When is a transitive verb in the active voice? 

5. When in the passive voice? 

SEAT WORK 

Select and copy neatly five sentences containing an intran- 
sitive verb, and write five of your own. 

LESSON LXXXI 

Exercises on Verbs 

In the sentences on the next page,—-- 
Tell what performs the action and what receives it. 
Tell what verbs are transitive and in the active voice, and 
tell why. 

Tell which are transitive and in the passive voics, and why. 
Tell which verbs are intransitive, and why. 



EXERCISES ON VERBS 125 

Point out all the subjects and the objects of a verb: — 

1. They gathered ripe nuts in autumn. 

2. The waysides are fringed with flowers. 

3. Many a green old sycamore shaded in summer the creek. 

4. Oft they watched with wondering eye the swallow. 

5. Brightly the morning sunshine glowed. 

6. The barns are filled to the full with grain. 

7. Through the autumn leaves the ripe fruit gleamed. 

8. The orchard trees of their load complain. 

9. The dull, red sun shines through the soft, smoky haze. 

10. The oaten sheaves in autumn were piled to the very eaves. 

EAT WORK 

Copy all the adverbial phrases from the sentences above, 
and explain in writing what each one tells and to what verb 
it is added. 

LESSON LXXXII 

Exercises on Verbs 

Do the same with these sentences as you did in the previous 
lesson : — 

1. All the signs foretold a long winter. 

2. Filled was the air with a dreamy, magical light. 

3. Glasses with horn bows sat astride on his nose. 

4. Basil knocked from his pipe the ashes. 

5. All his thoughts were congealed into lines on his face. 

6. Then the smoke rose slowly, slowly, through the tranquil air 
of morning. 

7. All the tribes beheld the signal. 

8. Then the warriors washed the war paint from their faces. 

9. In the green spring we gaze upon the awakening fields. 
10. A thousand odors rise from blossoms of a thousand hues. 

SEAT WORK 

Copy all the prepositional phrases from the sentences 
above, and tell in writing which are adjective and which are 
adverbial, and what each one tells. 



126 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON LXXXIII 

Exercises on Verbs 

Do with the following sentences taken from poetry, the 
same as you did in the two preceding lessons : — 

1. On the banks their clubs they buried. 

2. Two good friends had Hiawatha. 

3. All the coals were white with ashes. 

4. From his pouch he drew his peace pipe. 

5. Made of red stone was the pipe head. 

6. All the land with snow was covered. 

7. Homeward shoots the arrowy swallow. 

8. A scent of growing grasses through the lodge was gently wafted. 

9. From his eyes the tears were flowing. 

SEAT WORK 

Rewrite the sentences above in the order you would nat- 
urally say them if they were not in poetry. 

See if any of the subjects have been changed to objects, or 
any objects changed to subjects. 

To what is the swallow likened in sentence 7? 



LESSON LXXXIV 

Review Exercises 

1. Give a sentence whose verb denotes action and predi- 
cates it in one word. 

2. Give a sentence whose verb employs one word to de- 
note action and another to show its predication. 

3. Parse the verb in each of these sentences. 

4. Make sentences that will show how the adverb is em- 
ployed to tell how, when, where, actions are performed. 

5. Parse the adverbs. 



REVIEW EXERCISES 127 

6. Make sentences that will show how groups of words 
are employed for the same purpose. 

7. Give an example of an adverbial phrase denoting pur- 
pose. One denoting cause. 

8. Give an example of an adjective phrase used to denote 
quality. One used to denote possession. 

9. How do we change the form of nouns to make them 
denote possession? Give examples. 

10. How do we form the possessive case of singular nouns 
ending in s? Of plural nouns ending in s? 

11. Give a list of the possessive pronouns. 

SEAT WORK 

Write sentences containing all the possessive pronouns, 
and underline each pronoun. 



LESSON LXXXV 

Review Exercises 

1. For what different purposes do we use nouns in the 
possessive case? Give examples. 

2. What pronouns of the first person may be used in the 
nominative case? What in the possessive case? What in the 
objective case? 

3. What pronouns of the second person may be used in 
the nominative case? What in the possessive? What in the 
objective? 

4. What pronouns of the third person, masculine gender, 
may be used in each of the cases? What in the feminine 
gender? What in the neuter? 

5. Give a sentence containing a transitive verb in the 
active voice. 



128 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

6. Give a sentence containing a transitive verb in the 
passive voice. 

7. Give a sentence containing an intransitive verb. 

8. When is a verb said to be regular, and when irregular? 
Give an example of each kind. 

9. When is a verb in the present tense? 

10. When in the past tense? 

11. Give a sentence containing an irregular transitive verb 
in the passive voice and the past tense. 

12. Give a sentence containing a regular transitive verb in 
the active voice and the present tense. 

SEAT WORK 

Write what you know about the formation of the plural, 
and give examples of each way of forming it. 



LESSON LXXXVI 

Person and Number of the Verb 

I work. He works. 

We work. She works. 

You work. It works. 

They work. Thou workest. 

63. From the examples above, we see that the verb work 
has three forms in the present tense. When any one of the 
words I, we, you, or they is used as subject, the verb is work. 
When any one of the w T ords he, she, or it is used as subject, 
the verb is works. When thou is used as subject, the verb 
is workest. 

This change in the form of the verb is called its person 
and number. 

He, she, and it are each in the third person, singular num- 
ber ; so we see that when the subject is in the third person, sin- 



PERSON AND NUMBER OF THE VERB . 129 

gular number, s is added to the verb. The verb is then said to 
be in the third person, singular number. 

It is really the subject that has the person and number, and 
the verb changes its form to agree with it. 

When the subject is a noun in the third person, singular 
number, the verb is changed in form just as it is when the 
subject is a pronoun; as, — 

Men work. The boys play. 

Man works. The boy plays. 

Thou is never used in common language. It is sometimes 
found in poetry, and is much used in the Bible and other an- 
cient books. When used, it requires t v st, or est to be added 
to the verb, unless the verb already ends in st. 

From the following, it will be seen that the verb does not 
change its form in the past tense for person and number, ex- 
cept for thou: — 

I worked. He worked. 

We worked. She worked. 

You worked. It worked. 

They worked. Thou workedsU 

EXERCISE 

1. Employ the following verbs in sentences of your own : — 

Forsake, reach, stand, descend, approach, defends, forsakes, stands, 
defend, approaches, watches, reaches, make, descends, write, tells, 
watch, fall, falls, come, comes. 

2. Make each of the following words the subject of a 
sentence : — 

Nathan, mountains, city, sea, queens, soldier, landscape, castles, 
oceans, we, they, she, I, you, he, sky, books, fountains, ostrich, piano, 
pictures. 

3. Change the number of each noun subject, and the num- 
ber and person of each pronoun subject, and see what change 
will be required in the verb. 



130. ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy these sentences, and fill in the blanks: — 

1. The contains many people. 

2. The ■ falls heavily on the roof. 

3. The priest-like reads the sacred page. 

4. Softly now the 

Fades upon my sight away. 

5. How regally the — — look down. 

6. The summer lie pitched like tents. 

7. And yet once more the sing. 

8. And the — - — , dark and lonely, 

Move through all their depths of darkness. 

9. The gray-haired kneels beside the bier. 

2. Correct, by rewriting, all errors in the following sen- 
tences, giving reasons : — 

1. The heavens looks down with angry frown. 

2. The waves makes a moan. 

3. The wild winds roars. 

4. The tempest rage. 

5. Across the deck the huge waves dashes. 

6. The forest leaves falls like flakes to the ground. 

7. " The lion eat flesh," says I. 

8. A robe of leaves cover all the trees. 

9. The violets peeps from beneath the leaves. 

10. A dish of nuts stand on the table. 

11. The stars shines through the rents of ruin. 

12. The trees of the forest waves in the blue midnight. 

13. How sweet the moonlight sleep upon the bank. 

14. The wild waters leaps on the crags. 

15. Thou worked with ease. 

16. The Jordan rush to the Dead Sea. 

17. He praisedst the singer. 

18. A load of boys are passing. 

19. A vase of flowers were presented to the teacher. 

20. A crown of thorns was placed upon his brow. 

21. A confusion of sounds strike on my ear. 



PERSON AND NUMBER OF THE VERB TO BE 131 

LESSON LXXXVII 

Person and Number of the Verb To Be 

The verb to be is different from other verbs in many im- 
portant respects. It has more forms in the present tense than 
other verbs have, as will be seen by the following: — 

I am. We are. 

Thou aiO. You are. 

He is. They are. 

It also has more forms in the past tense, as seen below. 
I was. We were. 

Thou wast. You were. 

He was. They were. 

64. When the predicate consists of a copula and some other 
word, the copula is changed to show the person and number, 
but the other word remains unchanged. 

MODELS FOR PARSING THE VERB 

Sad-voiced Autumn grieves. 
Grieves is a verb, regular, intransitive, present tense, third 
person, singular number, to agree with its subject Autumn. 

Below me roar the rocking pines. 
Roar is a verb, regular, intransitive, present tense, third 
person, singular number, to agree with its subject pines. 

The wind is heard among the mountains. 
Is heard is a verb, irregular, transitive, passive voice, pres- 
ent tense, third person, singular number, to agree with its 
subject wind. The person and number are shown by the 
form is. 

I am sad. 
Am is a verb, irregular, copula, present tense, first person, 
singular number, to agree with its subject /. 



132 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

He trod the dark valley alone. 
Trod is a verb, irregular, transitive, active voice, past tense. 
This verb does not change its past tense for the person and 
number of its subject. 

EXERCISE 

Parse the verbs in the following : — 

1. The torrent pours down the rock. 

2. The tree tops faintly rustle. 

3. Silence reigned in the streets. 

4. Your eyes are dim. 

5. Thou art welcome. 

6. That star now holds the top of heaven. 

7. The sun shoots his upward beam against the dusky pole. 

8. My brothers stepped to the next thicket. 

9. Was I deceived? 

10. A sable cloud turns forth her silvery lining. 

11. I saw them under a green mantling vine. 

12. I am content. 

13. Thou art free. 

14. The plowman is whistling o'er the furrowed land. 

SEAT WORK 

Correct, by rewriting, all errors in the following sentences, 
giving reasons : — 

1. They was smitten with blindness. 

2. Adown the glen rides armed men. 

3. Deep, fiery clouds o'erspread the sky. 

4. Dread stillness reign in air. 

5. They keeps time to the music. 

6. We was invited. 

7. The mountain tower above the sky. 

8. The tickets was all taken before noon. 

9. Them is pretty. 

10. I were sadly disappointed. 

11. Them boys write letters in school. 

12. Flowers is prettiest in the morning. 

13. The books was found in the thief's trunk. 






INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES 133 

LESSON LXXXVIII 

Interrogative Sentences 

1. Change each of the following sentences so as to make it 
inquire for the quality, action, or state : — 

1. Joseph is industrious. 

2. Those buildings were new. 

3. The soil is productive. 

4. The wind is blowing. 

5. Those trees are fruitful. 

6. They were improving. 

7. Good resolutions are often forgotten. 

What change has been made in each sentence, in order to 
make it inquire for the action, or quality, or state? 

2. After the sentences above have been changed to the in- 
terrogative form, analyze them according to the following — 

MODELS 

Are you weary? 
You is the subject. 

Are weary is the predicate ; it inquires for a condition of 
the subject. 

Is the dew falling? 
Is falling is the predicate; it inquires for an action of the 
dew. 

SEAT WORK 
1. Write the analysis of the following questions, taking 
pains to punctuate your work correctly : — 

1. Why are you so sad? 

2. Where is she going? 

3. Were you present at the opening of the session? 

4. Was Cromwell destitute of private virtues? 

5. Art thou alone in this dreary wood? 

6. Hear you that distant murmur? 



134 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

2. Study the next lesson, then select and copy five sentences 
each containing a verb in the imperative mode. 

3. Write two similar sentences of your own, and two that 
you hear some one use. 

LESSON LXXXIX 

Commands, Exhortations, Petitions 

Hear me. 

These words are addressed to some one who is supposed 
to be present. If the person spoken to is younger than the 
speaker, or inferior in rank, the words will be understood as 
a command; if he is equal in age and rank, they will be under- 
stood as an exhortation; but if he is a superior, they will be 
regarded as a petition, or an entreaty. If they are addressed 
to God, they will be understood as a prayer or supplication. 

So the same words may express a command, an exhorta- 
tion, a petition, or a prayer. 

65. The expression, hear me, is regarded as a sentence. 
The subject is thou or you understood. If the subject were 
written, the sentence might stand thus: Hear thou me. The 
subject thou would allude to the person spoken to; but since 
that person is present, the subject may be dropped. 

EXERCISE 

In the following sentences, tell, (a) what rank of persons 
may be addressed, (b) whether one or more persons, (c) 
whether the sentence is a command, exhortation, petition, 
or prayer. 

1. Rise up to thy full height. 

2. Listen to the advice of the godly. 

3. Be wise. 

4. Be encouraged by your success. 



COMMANDS, EXHORTATIONS, PETITIONS 135 

5. Be guided in all things in this life by the Word of God. 

6. Hear out of heaven thy dwelling place, O God of Israel. 

7. Enter ye in at the strait gate. 

8. Swear not at all. 

9. Be thou faithful unto death. 

10. Go ye into all the world and preach the gospel to every creature. 

11. Nature, attend! join every living soul 
Beneath the spacious temple of the sky, — 
In adoration join; and, ardent, raise 

One general song! To Him, ye vocal gales, 

Breathe soft, whose Spirit in your freshness breathes : 

O talk of Him in solitary glooms! 

Where, o'er the rock, the scarcely waving pine 

Fills the brown shade with a religious awe. 

And ye, whose bolder note is heard afar, 

Who shake the astonished world, lift high to heaven 

The impetuous song, and say from whom you rage. 

His praise, ye brooks, attune, ye trembling rills ; 

And let me catch it as I muse along. 

— Thomson. 

SEAT WORK 

Write out information about the following sentences as di- 
rected in the exercise above. Thus : — 

Come into the ark of safety. 

Come is addressed to a person of equal or lower rank; it 
is spoken to one or more persons; it expresses a command. 
Since the persons addressed are supposed to be present and 
hear, the subject is omitted. 

1. Trust in the Lord with all thy heart. 

2. Get wisdom. 

3. Honor the Lord with thy substance. 

4. In all thy ways acknowledge him. 

5. Hear the instruction of thy father. 

6. Enter not into the path of the wicked. 

7. Take time for reflection. 

8. Receive my instruction. 

9. Keep thy heart with all diligence. 



136 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON XC 

Modes and Sentences 

66. The verb in such sentences as those studied in the 
preceding lesson, is said to be in the imperative mode; for 
imperative means commanding, and mode means manner. 
Here mode means manner of speaking, as in the world of 
fashion it means manner of dressing. 

67. The verbs in all the other sentences we have had here- 
tofore are said to be in the indicative mode. They simply 
indicate or declare an act, being, or state, or inquire for it. 

68. A sentence containing a verb in the indicative mode is 
called a declarative sentence. 

69. A sentence containing a verb in the indicative mode 
and asking a question is called an interrogative sentence. 

70. A sentence containing a verb in the imperative mode is 
called an imperative sentence. 

EXERCISE 

Tell which of the following sentences are declarative, which 
interrogative, and which imperative. Explain why you so call 
them : — ■ 

1. Go not in the way of evil men. 

2. Ponder the ways of thy feet. 

3. In the first watch of the night, 

Without a signal's sound, 
Out of the sea, mysteriously, 
The fleet of Death rose all around. 

4. Whence comes that murmur? 

5. Whither goest thou? 

6. Put away from thee a froward mouth. 

7. When was the independence of the United States acknowledged 
by Great Britain? 

8. There in close covert by some brook 
Hide me from day's garish eye. 

9. With speeches fair she woos the gentle air. 

10. She hides her guilty front with innocent snow. 



MODES AND SENTENCES 137 

Remarks. — In sentence 3, the two words out of are used 
together as a preposition. 

Around, although it would be a preposition if the ellipsis 
were supplied, is better called an adverb, representing an ad- 
verbial phrase in which the object of the preposition is under- 
stood. The meaning is that the fleet of Death rose all around 
the ship. 

All is an adverb, added to the adverb around. It seems 
to convey the idea that every part of the sea around this ship 
was covered with the fleet of Death. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy from some book three sentences each 
of the kinds studied in this lesson. 

2. Write one of each of these kinds which you hear your 
teacher use. 



LESSON XCI 

Class Predicated 

Things that are alike are said to be of the same class. 

Men- that build houses and barns are called carpenters; 
men that till the soil are called farmers; men that study law, 
and plead cases in court, are called lawyers; men that work 
in iron are called blacksmiths. 

71. These nouns do not name any particular individuals, 
but a class of persons ; they are therefore called class nouns. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Men that make flour are called what? 

2. Men that weave cloth? 

3. Men that dig minerals from the earth? 



138 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

4. Men that build walls and houses of brick and stone? 

5. Men that spend their lives upon the sea? 

6. Men that roam the forests in search of game? 

7. What other classes of men can you name? 

In this way we classify men in respect to their employ- 
ment in life. 

Those of the same employment may be very different in 
other respects. For instance, some farmers are very indus- 
trious, others are indolent; some are temperate, others are in- 
temperate; some are honest, and others are dishonest. Yet 
all these men belong to the class called farmers ; for they are 
following farming as an employment. 

EXERCISE 

1. In each of the following sentences, point out the class 
noun, define the word used, and tell to whom it applies : — 

1. Tennyson is a poet. 

2. His father was a minister. 

3. Locke was a philosopher. 

4. My brother is a musician. 

5. Bonaparte was a general. 

6. Gold is a metal. 

7. He was a Samaritan. 

8. The captain was a Spaniard. 

9. That tall, gray man was a general in the rebel army. 

10. The inventor of the magnetic telegraph was an American. 

2. Analyze the last three sentences above, and parse the 
class noun in each, according to the following models : — 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

My uncle is a merchant. 

1. Uncle is the subject of this sentence. 

2. Is merchant is the predicate; it predicates that my 
imcle belongs to a class of men called merchants. 

3. Merchant names one of a class. 

4. Is shows that the thought is predicated. 



CLASS PREDICATED 139 

5. My alludes to the speaker, and shows whose uncle is 
meant. 

6. A denotes one, but no particular one. 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

Merchant is a class noun, common, third person, singular 
number, masculine gender ; used with the copula to form the 
predicate, and therefore put in the nominative case. 

SEAT WORK 

Write out the work for the following sentences as directed 
at the beginning of the exercise above ; thus : — 

Orator is a class noun; it means one who speaks effectively 
in public; it applies to Demosthenes, and classifies him. 

1. Demosthenes was an orator. 

2. His son was a lawyer. 

3. John was an apostle. 

4. Bryant was a poet. 

5. That man is a sailor. 

6. My neighbor is a painter. 

7. Water is a liquid. 

8. The earth is a planet. 

9. Good people are always generous. 

10. That body of land is an island. 

11. This plant is a perennial. 

12. That dark building is a prison. 

13. Pitcairn is an island in the Pacific Ocean. 

14. Robert Morrison was a missionary in China. 

15. Admiral Peary is the discoverer of the north pole. 

16. The canary is a beautiful songster. 

17. Luther was a preacher of great power. 

18. Marconi is the inventor of the wireless telegraph. 

19. The construction of the Panama Canal was a great engineer- 
ing feat. 

20. Daniel was a prisoner in the lions' den. 



140 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON XCII 

Class Assumed 

In the previous lesson the class was predicated of the sub- 
ject, but, like quality, it may also be assumed. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the nouns which assume class of the subject; 
give the meaning of the noun, and tell to whom it applies : — 

1. Demosthenes the orator was remarkably eloquent. 

2. Booth the assassin shot Lincoln. 

3. Raphael the artist was very industrious. 

4. The sentinel stars set their watch in the sky. 

5. John the apostle was much loved by his Lord. 

6. Bryant the poet is dead. 

7. Luke the beloved physician accompanied Paul. 

8. Noah the preacher built the ark. 

9. Philip the evangelist baptized the eunuch. 
10. David the sweet singer played before Saul. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write out information on the last five of the sentences 
above, according to the directions given. 

2. Rewrite five of the sentences in the previous lesson so 
the class will be assumed. 

LESSON XCIII 

Assuming One Class and Predicating Another 

Considering him with respect to his occupation, or business 
in life, I might say, " Mr. Jones is a lawyer; " but considering 
him in regard to his religious views, I might say, " Mr. Jones 
is a Baptist. " By this we see that Mr. Jones might belong to 
two classes at the same time. If we wish to predicate that he 
belongs to both the classes noticed above, we say, " Mr. Jones 
is a lawyer and a Baptist." 



ASSUMING ONE CLASS AND PREDICATING ANOTHER 141 

If we wish to predicate that he belongs to one class, and 
assume that he belongs to another, we say, " Mr. Jones the 
lawyer is a Baptist ; " or " Mr. Jones the Baptist is a lawyer." 

EXERCISE 

Point out the class nouns, define their meaning, and tell 
whether they are predicated or assumed : — 

1. Arnold the traitor was false to his country. , 

2. Simon the tanner dwelt by the sea. 

3. Tecumseh the warrior was an Indian chief. 

4. Saul the king was slain. 

5. Spenser the poet was a recluse. 

6. Luther the Reformer exposed the errors of the Romish Church. 

7. Bonaparte the Corsican became emperor of France. 

8. Luke the beloved physician was a companion of Paul. 

9. Naaman the captain of the Syrian host was a leper. 

10. Joseph the favorite son of Jacob was prime minister of Egypt. 

11. Aaron the brother of Moses was a high priest. 

12. George I king of Greece was a Dane. 

72. A class noun describes a person or object by giving it 
another name. Since this other name is frequently placed be- 
side the first name of the person or object it classifies, it is 
said to be in apposition with the first noun; for apposition 
(ad-position) means position beside, just as pre-position means 
position before (see Lesson 52). 

If the class noun is assumed, we say merely that it is in 
apposition with the noun it classifies; but if the class noun is 
predicated, we say it is in predicated apposition with the 
noun it classifies. 

SEAT WORK 

Write a description of each class noun in the exercise above 
by telling what kind of apposition it is in, and with what it is 
in apposition. 



142 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON XCIV 

Class Phrases 

Moses was a goodly child. 

In this sentence it is plain that child is a class noun, and 
in predicated apposition with Moses. By adding the qualifying 
word goodly, we classify Moses more closely, or more in par- 
ticular, than when we use only the general class name child. 

73. In this case it takes the entire phrase goodly child to 
classify as closely as we wish ; hence we may call such an ex- 
pression a class phrase. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the class phrases below, and tell which part of the 
phrase names the general class, and which indicates the par- 
ticular class to which the person or object belongs: — 

1. The Indians were brave warriors. 

2. The Northmen were bold adventurers. 

3. Cactuses are hardy plants. 

4. Why are you so careless in your work? 

5. The Spaniards are treacherous foes. 

6. Bonaparte was a successful general. 

7. That horse is a beautiful animal. 

8. Reprove not a scorner. 

9. Those houses with stone fronts are beautiful buildings. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy each sentence, underline neatly the class phrase, 
and write a description of each phrase as directed in the exer- 
cise above : — 

1. The Cabots were successful discoverers. 

2. The lark is a sweet singer. 

3. Cortez was a cruel invader. 

4. The Richardsons are good neighbors. 

5. The Scandinavians are hardy mariners. 



CLASS PHRASES 143 

2. (a) Tell the kind of sentence, (b) name the subject and 
the predicate, (c) point out and classify each prepositional 
phrase : — 

1. Hang a lantern aloit in the belfry arch of the North Church 
tower. 

2. Our uncle, innocent of books, 

Was rich in lore of fields and brooks. 

— Whittier. 

3. The mellow light of sunset shone sweetly on the wood-girt 

town. 

4. And above, in the light 
Of the starlit night, 

Swift birds of passage wing their flight 
Through the dewy atmosphere. 

— Longfelloiv. 



LESSON XCV 

Class Phrases 

Like simple nouns, class phrases may either assume or pred- 
icate class. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the class phrases, tell whether they are assumed 
or predicated, and analyze each phrase as before : — 

1. Milton the great poet was a devout man. 

2. Wednesday, my mother's birthday, was a stormy day. 

3. The Reformers were earnest Christians. 

4. Newton was a great mathematician. 

5. These substances are pure metals. 

6. The orange is a delicious fruit. 

7. Iagoo, the great boaster, was a marvelous story-teller. 

8. Keep thy father's commandment. 

9. He was, assuredly, an excellent solicitor. 

10. With the neighboring gentry, however, he was no favorite. 

11. That peak you see yonder is Mt. Shasta. 

12. Nimrod the son of Cush was a mighty hunter. 



144 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

1. Name the kind of sentence, and point out the subject 
and the predicate : — ■ 

1. Keep your mind upon worthy subjects. 

2. Why were you tardy? 

3. Wake the song of jubilee. 

4. Beside the river's tranquil flood 

The dark and low-walled dwelling stood. 

5. The skirts of a heavy thundercloud hung over the western hill. 

2. Select and copy or compose five sentences each con- 
taining a class phrase that assumes or predicates, or both. Un- 
derline the class phrase neatly, and mark each one A or P 
according to whether it assumes or predicates class. 

lesson xcvi 

Class Phrases 

Do with these sentences as directed in the previous les- 
son : — • 

1. Miles Standish, the Puritan captain, was a little man. 

2. Nauhaught, the Indian deacon, was a poor man. 

3. A hearty man was Benedict, the wealthy farmer of Grand Pre. 

4. The landlady's son, a tall viking, went with us. 

5. Dr. Franklin, the great philosopher, was the son of a poor man. 

6. Fear not the icy fingers of Death. 

7. Why is seven a perfect number? 

8. Alden, the taciturn stripling, was a fair-haired Anglo-Saxon 

Remarks. — In sentence 1, Miles Standish may be parsed 
as one word. Puritan is a noun, com., 3d, sing., masc. ; used 
here as an adjective. It describes the captain by naming the 
religious sect to which he belonged. It takes the capital initial, 
not because it is a proper noun, but because it is the name of 
a sect. It cannot be a proper noun ; for it may be applied to 
any one of a large class. 



CLASS PHRASES 145 

Puritan is sometimes wholly an adjective, as when we speak 
of Puritan principles ; or it may be wholly a noun, as when we 
say a man is a Puritan. 

In sentence 2, Indian is a common noun, and used in very 
much the same way as Puritan in the sentence above. It takes 
the capital initial because it is derived from the proper noun 
India. 

Viking means a pirate chief; but this young man is probably 
called a viking on account of his commanding appearance. He 
looks as if he might be strong and courageous enough for a 
viking. 

In sentence 6, Death is represented as being a person. He 
is said to have icy fingers, because when people die, their fin- 
gers become very cold. What is such a figure of speech called? 
(See Lesson 77.) 

Fair-haired is one word — an adjective. 

SEAT WORK 

Study the next lesson; write the parsing of all the nouns 
and verbs used in the five illustrative sentences. 

LESSON XCVII 

Assuming and Predicating Identity 

1. That tall man is Abraham Lincoln. 

2. Israel's wisest king was Solomon. 

3. The boy Henry fell into the sea. 

4. The brig " Rover " was sunk, 

5. That wise king, Solomon, built the temple. 

In sentence 1, the subject names one of a class, and the 
predicate identifies him by giving his individual name. 

In sentence 2, Israel's wisest king names and describes one 
of a class, and was Solomon predicates his identity. 

- io 



146 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

In sentence 3, the subject, boy, names one of a class, and 
Henry, his individual name, assumes his identity. 

In the fourth sentence, brig names one of a class of vessels, 
and Rover names the particular one here meant. 

In the fifth sentence wise king names and describes one of 
a class; and Solomon, his proper name, identifies the wise king 
here meant 

In sentences 3 and 4, the words Henry and Rover are so 
closely connected in sense with the words just before them that 
it is not proper to set them off by any mark of punctuation ; 
but in sentence 5, the word Solomon is not so closely connected 
with the word before it. We should be almost certain that Sol- 
omon was the king meant, if the word Solomon were left out; 
but to remove all doubt, we insert the word by way of explana- 
tion, putting a comma before it and another after it, and thus 
separating it from other parts of the sentence. This is what 
we call " setting ofif " a word by the comma. 

Notice, with regard to punctuation, the appositional nouns 
and phrases in preceding lessons. 

74. A noun in apposition, taken together with the words 
which belong to it, may, for convenience, be called an apposi- 
tional phrase. 

EXERCISE 

1. Point out the terms used to identify, and tell whether 
the identity is assumed or predicated: — 

1. The schooner " Melrose JJ was wrecked. 

2. The orator Webster was a great man. 

3. The poet Wordsworth possessed a noble spirit 

4. The river Ganges is worshiped by the Hindus. 

5. The emperor Augustus was a patron of the fine arts. 

6. The old man in the white-skin wrapper was Peboan, the winter. 

2. What class nouns or phrases do you find above? 



ASSUMING AND PREDICATING IDENTITY 147 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy neatly, and underline the identifying words or 
phrases, and the classifying words or phrases, marking the 
former Id. and the latter CI. Mark the appositional words or 
phrases Ap.: — 

1. The apostle John was particularly beloved by his Master. 

2. His father-in-law Jethro came unto him. 

3. Milton, the author of " Paradise Lost," was a noble man. 

4. The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent work on morals. 

5. Pau-Puk-Keewis, the handsome Indian, was a gambler. 

6. Alph, the sacred river, ran through caverns measureless, down 
to a sunless sea. 

7. That youthful stranger at the door is Segwun, the springtime. 

When we wish to make the person or thing more promi- 
nent, we put the individual name for the subject, and the class 
name in the predicate ; as, — 

Benedict Arnold was a most noted traitor. 
But when we wish to make the class more prominent, we 
put the class name for subject, and the individual name in the 
predicate ; as,— 

This noted traitor was Benedict Arnold. 
Just so it is in assuming the same thought. Corresponding 
to the first sentence above, we have, — 

Benedict Arnold, a most noted traitor, etc. 
Corresponding to the second sentence, we have, — 
That most noted traitor, Benedict Arnold, etc. 
So, too, in briefer form we have, — 

1. Arnold the traitor. 

2. The traitor Arnold. 

2. Rewrite the sentences above so as to make the person 
more prominent than the thing or the thing more prominent 
than the person, as the case may be. 

3. Rearrange in the same way the appositional phrases in 
the exercise of this lesson. 



148 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON XCVIII 

Miscellaneous Exercise 

Name the kind of sentence, point out the subject and predi- 
cate, and tell how each prepositional phrase is used : — 

1. Round their necks were suspended their knives, in scabbards of 
wampum. 

2. Then Evangeline lighted the brazen lamp on the table. 

3. Meanwhile the stalwart Miles Standish was marching steadily 
northward along the trend of the seashore. 

4. After a three days'* march he came to an Indian encampment. 

5. Then the Black-Robe chief, the prophet, told his message to the 
people. 

6. They hung on the headstones garlands of autumn leaves, and 
evergreens from the forests. 

SEAT WORK 

Write a composition on Carey the Cobbler. 



LESSON XCIX 

Miscellaneous Exercise 

Do with these sentences as directed in the previous les- 
son: — 

1. In the infinite meadows of heaven, blossomed the lovely stars, 
the forget-me-nots of the angels. 

2. Soon with a soundless step the foot of Evangeline followed. 

3. Art thou afraid? 

4. Gather the host together for battle. 

5. Take thou this holy sword, a gift from God. 

6. The morning sun is shining on their shields of gold. 

7. Send before us a good angel. 

8. A flush of shame 
Over the face of the leader came. 

9. Silently over that house the blessing of slumber descended. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 149 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write a composition on Joseph the Dreamer. 

2. Look for class nouns and phrases in your composition, 
and note whether they are assumed or predicated. 

lesson c 

Review Exercises 

Direction. — Give examples of everything brought out by 
the questions. 

1. What is a common noun? A proper noun? A col- 
lective noun ? An abstract noun ? 

2. What classes of common nouns take the capital in- 
itial ? 

3. Write the following words and expressions correctly : — 

The cape of good hope, Columbia river, alps mountains, Smiths' 
sound, the bay of biscay, Washington city, the great city of london, 
Washington was a federalist, mr. bailey, the Missionary to south af- 
rica, the methodist minister, tuesday, nov. 5th, autumn. 

4. How do most nouns form their plural ? 

5. How do we form the plural of nouns whose final sound 
will not unite with the sound of s? 

6. What nouns belong to this class ? 

7. What nouns form their plural by adding es without in- 
creasing the number of their syllables? 

8. How do nouns ending in y form their plural? 

9. How should we form the plural of nouns ending in j? 
of nouns ending in je? 

10. How do qualifying adjectives limit nouns? 

11. How do limiting adjectives differ from qualifying ad- 
jectives? 

12. Give examples of limiting adjectives that show what or 
which ones are meant. 



150 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

13. Give examples of limiting adjectives that show indefi- 
nitely how many are meant. 

14. Give examples of adjectives that tell definitely how 
many. 

15. What pronouns may be used to represent the speaker? 

16. Which of these may be used as subject? Which as 
object? 

17. Which of them may be used to denote ownership, or- 
igin, etc.? 

18. What four pronouns may be used to represent the 
speaker and those associated with him? 

19. How must each of them be used? 

20. What pronouns may be used to represent the oerson or 
persons spoken to ? 

21. How is each of them employed? 

22. What pronouns may be employed in speaking of a per- 
son of the masculine sex ? 

23. In speaking of a person of the feminine sex? 

24. In speaking of something that has no sex? 

25. What four pronouns are used in speaking of things 
without regard to sex? 

26. How must each be used ? 

27. Give examples of the incorrect use of oronouns? 

LESSON CI 

Review Exercises 

Direction. — Illustrate by examples, as in the preceding 
lesson. 

1. In what four ways are adverbial phrases used? 

2. For what different purposes are nouns in the possessive 
case used? 

3. Tell some of the different uses of adjective phrases. 



REVIEW EXERCISES 151 

4. How do singular nouns form the possessive case ? Plu- 
ral nouns ? 

5. When is a verb called a copula? 

6. When is it said to be intransitive? 

7. When is it transitive? 

8. When is a transitive verb in the active voice ? 

9. When is it in the passive voice ? 

10. When is a verb said to be regular? 

11. Give examples of irregular verbs. 

12. Give examples of verbs in the imperative mode. In the 
indicative mode. 

13. Give examples of interrogative sentences. 

14. Give examples of verbs in the present tense. In the 
past tense. 

15. Make a sentence with the verb in the present tense, 
;hird person, singular number. 

16. One with the verb in the third person, plural number. 
First person, singular number. First person, plural number. 
Second person, singular. Second person, plural. 

17. Change these verbs to the past tense. 

18. How does the verb to be differ in person and number 
from other verbs ? 

19. Show this difference by examples. 

20; Predicate that a person or object belongs to a class of 
persons or things. 

21. Express the same thought without predicating it. 

22. Predicate identity. Assume identity. 

23. Assume one class and predicate another in the same 
sentence. 

SEAT WORK 

Study the next lesson, and write the analysis of the last 
three sentences. 



152 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CII 

Action Assumed 

1. Beautiful insects dancing in the air. 

2. Bright flowers growing by the wayside. 

3. Walking by the beach, I saw a huge sea lion, playing in 
the water. 

The first group of words above is not a sentence; for al- 
though it names objects, it does not predicate anything of 
them. 

Dancing denotes an action, but we do not say that the in- 
sects are dancing. We mention the action incidentally, as 
though it were not the chief thought which we wish to express. 
The action is not predicated, but merely assumed. 

In the second group, growing assumes an action of the 
flowers. 

The third example is a sentence; it predicates one action, 
and assumes two others. 

Saw predicates an action of the speaker, and walking as- 
sumes an action of the same person. 

Sea lion names what I saw. 

Playing assumes an action of the sea lion. 

75. A word that merely assumes an action, but does not 
predicate it, is called a participle; for participle means par- 
taking, that is, partaking of the nature of a verb in that it de- 
notes action, but differing from the verb in that it does not 
predicate but assumes action. 

It is very important to keep clearly in mind the distinc- 
tion between a participle and a complete verb; one assumes, 
the other predicates, action. With the help of a copula, the 
participle may become part of a verb phrase, but it can never 
be a full verb by itself. 



ACTION ASSUMED 153 

EXERCISE 

1. Point out the participle, and tell of what it assumes an 
action. 

2. Point out the word that predicates an action, and tell of 
what the action is predicated : — 

1. Trusting in his own strength, he failed. 

2. The stream flowing from that lake empties into the bay near the 
old fort. 

3. That tall man standing by the wheel is the captain of the vessel. 

4. Those fleecy clouds, sailing slowly through the sky, are lovely. 

5. Going to the blazing fire, she held out her hand. 

6. He hears the tread of the grenadiers, marching down to their 
boats on the shore. 

7. Thus came the lovely spring, flooding the earth with flowers. 

8. Rapidly crossing the stream, the spy plunged into the forest. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy three sentences, each containing a parti- 
ciple. 

2. Write three of your own. 

3. Underline each participle, and tell of what it assumes 
action. 

4. Tell what words predicate action, and of what. 

LESSON cm 

Participles, Present and Active 

76. A participle is present when it represents the act as 
taking place at the time denoted by the predicate, whether 
that time be past, present, or future ; that is, the action denoted 
by the participle is present to the time of the action denoted 
by the predicate. 

77. A participle is active when the thing described by it 
performs the action. 

From these statements you can see that a participle may 
have some of the properties of a verb. Yet a participle de- 
notes only relative, not absolute time. 



154 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

EXERCISE 

Point out the participle, show that it is present and active, 
and tell what it describes : — 

1. Hearing a sharp cry from the thicket, I stopped my horse. 

2. Following the stream, we soon came to a beautiful waterfall. 

3. Coming suddenly upon a trapper's hut, we uttered a cry of joy. 

4. Our lives are rivers, gliding to that boundless sea, the silent 
grave. 

5. Leaving there his offering, he turned his feet toward his long- 
deserted home. 

6. Across the ocean came a gallant bark, bearing a precious cargo. 

7. He sat down by his sunny doorway, murmuring there unto 
himself. 

Remarks. — In sentence 7, himself is a pronoun, object of 
the preposition unto. Self is added to him merely to denote 
the reflex action of the murmuring. Such pronouns have the 
same form whether used with the subject or object, or as the 
object itself, and should never be used in the possessive case. 

SEAT WORK 

Study the next lesson; write the analysis of the first two 
examples, and the parsing of the participles in all the others. 

lesson civ 

Punctuation of Participial Phrases 

78. The participle is usually accompanied by other words, 
that tell what receives the action, or how, why, when, or where 
the action was performed, thus forming a group called a par- 
ticipial phrase, with the participle as its base. 

In the first example below, fearing an attack is a participial 
phrase; fearing is its base, and attack is the object. 

79. The participial phrase is commonly set off by the 
comma; but sometimes it is used to tell what one or which 
one, as it does in sentences 4 and 5 of this lesson. The phrase 



PUNCTUATION OF PARTICIPIAL PHRASES 155 

is then said to be restrictive, because it restricts the noun to 
the particular person or object described by the phrase. 

In sentence 4, which man is the emperor? In sentence 5, 
which lady is the governor's wife? Notice that in each case 
the participial phrase answers the question. But in sentences 
1, 2, 3, no such question can be answered by the participial 
phrase; for example, fearing an attack does not tell which 
general set a double guard, but merely describes a condition 
that led him to do so. Such a phrase is called nonrestrictive. 

80. When a participial phrase is nonrestrictive, it should 
be set off by the comma. 

When a participial phrase is restrictive it should not be 
set off by the comma. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the participial phrase, tell whether it is restrictive 
or nonrestrictive, and justify the punctuation: — 

1. Fearing an attack, the general set a double guard. 

2. Fording the stream, we were soon threading our way through 
the winding ravines leading up the mountain's side. 

3. My friend, losing his way, spent the night in the forest. 

4. That man looking through an opera glass is the emperor of 
Brazil. 

5. That lady standing by the window is the governor's wife. 

6. From his wigwam he departed, leading Laughing Water with 
him. 

7. A boy playing on the seashore found the lost oar. 

8. Seeing the multitudes, Jesus went up into a mountain and sat 
down. 

9. Tis morning; and the sun, with ruddy orb ascending, fires the 
horizon. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Classify, in writing, the participial phrases in the pre- 
ceding lesson. 

2. Write five sentences each containing a participial phrase 
that is restrictive, and five sentences each containing a parti- 
cipial phrase that is not restrictive. Punctuate them correctly. 



156 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CV 

Participles, Passive and Past 

81. A participle is passive when the thing described by it 
receives the action. 

82. A participle is past when it represents action that took 
place prior to the time of the predicate. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the participles, tell whether each one is active or 
passive, present or past, and tell what it describes : — 

1. Smiling Nature is seen, clad in garments green. 

2. A net made of thongs was used by the natives. 

3. The captives taken by the savages were tortured. 

4. Walking through the camp at daybreak, I met a spy in disguise. 

5. Guarded by thy protection, we sink to rest. 

6. He looked down on the sunlight flowing over all the landscape. 

7. The fruit raised in that region is exported to many countries. 

8. Bearing the body to a thick grove of cedars, she covered it with 
dry leaves. 

9. Launched from our hands, the smooth stone skimmed the lake. 

10. Merrily seated in a ring, we partook of a choice repast. 

11. Here delicate snow stars, out of the cloud, 

Come floating downward in airy play, 
Like spangles dropped from the glistening crowd 
That whiten by night the milky way. 

— Bryant 

A participle may be added to a pronoun the same as to a 
noun. 

In sentence 5, rest is a noun, object of the preposition to. 

SEAT WORK 

In sentence 5, rest is a noun, object of the preposition to. 
line the base of the phrase, and tell in writing whether the 
phrase is restrictive or nonrestrictive, and how you know. 



PARTICIPLES 157 

LESSON CVI 

Participles 

Study the participles and participial phrases, and tell what 
each one describes : — 

1. The cottage he sees, embowered upon the banks of Tees. 

2. Patiently sat Hiawatha, listening to his father's boasting. 

3. A fragment of rock, torn from the brow of the cliff, was pre- 
cipitated into the abyss below. 

4. At the doorway of his wigwam sat the ancient arrow maker, 
making arrowheads of jasper. 

5. Sat his daughter, Laughing Water, plaiting mats of rushes. 

6. A carriage drawn by eight horses was overturned near the 
bridge. 

7. Far away in the briny ocean 

There rolled a turbulent wave, 
Now singing along the seabeach, 
Now howling along the cave. 

— Longfellow. 

8. Heaven smiled at the earth long unseen from beneath its heavy 
eyelid. 

Remarks,-— In sentence 3, below is an adjective, added to 
abyss to show its condition in regard to place. It takes the 
place of- the adjective phrase below us, or below the brow of 
the cliff, and means the same as the adjective clause, which 
was below, etc. 

83. In sentence 7, the word there is used merely to give 
smoothness to the expression, and is sometimes called a word 
of euphony. Some call it an expletive, since it performs no 
part in expressing the thought, and is therefore not really 
needed. Look in your dictionary for the meaning of euphony 
and expletive. 

The two words far away seem to be used together to tell 
where the wave rolled, and may be parsed as an adverb. 



158 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



SEAT WORK 



1. Select and copy three short sentences, containing a par- 
ticiple. Have some of the participles present active, and some 
past passive. 

2. Write three of your own of the same kind. 

3. Underline and index neatly each participle with a, P. A, 
or P. P., as required. 



lesson cvn 

Participles 

Tell whether the participial phrases are restrictive or 
merely descriptive, and what each one describes. 
Explain the punctuation in each case. 

1. In her wigwam, Laughing Water sat with old Nokomis, waiting 
for the steps of Hiawatha homeward from the hunt returning. 

2. So saying, he walked away, followed by Walter. 

3. The ground pine curled its pretty wreath, running over the 
club-moss burs. 

4. Silently he laid his hand on the head of the maiden, raising his 
tearful eyes to the silent stars above them. 

5. The brooklet came from the mountain, running with feet of 
silver over the sands of gold. 

6. In the pastures decked with flowers, lambs are frisking every- 
where. 

7. The skeleton found near my house was exhibited at the museum. 

8. Leaving the military in the lobby, Cromwell entered the House. 

9. He is standing on the ocean beach, watching the crested billows. 

10. The broad valley, stretching away toward the sea, was dotted 
with beautiful villages. 

11. A strange fish caught in the China Sea was exhibited in Boston. 

12. Words spoken in jest are often taken in earnest. 

Remarks. — Sentence 5 contains some beautiful figures. 
As animals run with feet, so the brook is said to run with feet. 



PARTICIPLES 159 

The feet are said to be silver because the water, as it runs 
over pebbles in shallow places, looks white and glistening, in 
the sunlight, like polished silver. 

The sands are said to be gold because they are yellow and 
shining like gold. 

So we sometimes give to one thing the name of another 
when they are strikingly alike in some one quality which we 
wish to make prominent. 

84. When we wish to call particular t attention to some 
quality of a thing, we give to it the name of something else 
that is remarkable for that quality. This is what is called a 
figure of metaphor. 

In sentence 8, House means the room where Parliament 
meets ; the lobby is a waiting room ; the military means the 
soldiers. 

In sentence 10, stretching means the same as extending, or 
spreading. 

SEAT WORK 

1. What metaphors do you find in sentence 7 of the pre- 
ceding lesson? Describe them in writing. 

2. Ask your teacher to tell you where to find some sen- 
tences containing metaphors, copy the sentences, and under- 
line the metaphors neatly. 

LESSON CVIII 

Participles 

Study the participles, noting especially which are the base 
of a phrase and which are not : — 

1. Noiselessly throwing the oars from the canoe, she quickly swung 
it round into the rapidly rolling current. 

2. The dress worn by the President's wife was made in France. 

3. The young chief, seeing the peril of his situation, leaped from 
the bark. 



160 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

4. The region traversed by that mighty stream is very productive. 

5. Following time down through its various windings, we are led 
from the death of Cain to the flood. 

6. The precepts contained in that Holy Book were given by the 
Creator of the universe. 

Remarks. — We have seen that participles describe things 
by assuming action of them, just as adjectives do by assuming 
quality or condition. On the other hand, participles denote 
action just like verbs, and would be verbs if they had the power 
to predicate the action which they denote. 

Now it is because these words participate in the nature of 
both the verb and the adjective that they are called participles. 

85. When the participle is used just before the noun which 
it limits, its adjective nature greatly predominates, and we al- 
most lose sight of the action denoted by it. It is then called 
a participial adjective. The first sentence of this lesson 
affords an example of a participial adjective. 

In sentence 3, peril names a condition of danger. Situation 
nurnes that to which the peril pertained. 

In sentence 5, time is compared to a stream. 

SEAT WORK 

Write a composition on Winter, first making a list of ques- 
tions to be answered, or of points to write about. 



lesson cix 

Actions and Qualities Named 

1. Walking is a healthful exercise. 

2. Nathan was condemned for stealing. 

3. Gentleness is becoming. 

In the first sentence above, we predicate something of the 
act of walking; and the word walking names that action. 



ACTIONS AND QUALITIES NAMED 161 

In the second sentence, stealing names the action for which 
Nathan was condemned, and for shows the relation of the 
act of stealing to the act of being condemned. 

In the third sentence, we predicate something of the quality 
called gentleness; and the word gentleness names the quality. 

Name the actions and qualities denoted by the following 
words : — ■ 

Walk, think, write, talk, select, array, destroy, fulfill, rapid, sub- 
lime, weak, timid, accomplish, great, grand, true, strong, high, delicate, 
mighty, study, diligent. 

86. Participles used to name actions may be called par- 
ticipial nouns; but since a participle is strongly verbal in na- 
ture, a participle used to name an action is more often called 
a verbal noun. 

What do we call nouns used to name a quality? (See Les- 
son 27.) 

EXERCISE 

What actions and what qualities are named in the fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

1. Wisdom is the principal thing. 

2. The sighing of the wind among the branches makes mourn- 
ful music. 

3. Arnold is despised for betraying his country. 

4. We heard the roaring of the cataract. 

5. Bonaparte was noted for his indomitable perseverance. 

6. They dropped their lines in the lazy tide, 
Drawing up haddock and mottled cod. 

— W Wittier. 

7. All the woodland's voices meet, 
Mingled with its murmurs sweet. 

8. Earnestness always gives promise of success. 
this course. 

9. Barnstable well understood the captain's reason for adopting 

10. Goodness is necessary to true greatness. 

11. Eating too often is injurious to health. 



162 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

12. Writing letters and reading books employ his leisure hours. 

13. He employs his leisure hours in writing letters. 

14. The rivalry between Edom and Israel began with Esau and 
Jacob, the ancestral founders of the two nations. 

15. And then in a twinkling I heard on the roof 
The prancing and pawing of each little hoof. 

SEAT WORK 

Write five sentences, each containing a verbal noun; and 
five, each containing an abstract noun. 



LESSON CX 

Verbal and Abstract Nouns 

Point out the verbal and abstract nouns, and tell the relation 
of each to other words in the sentence: — 

1. My friend is engaged in collecting botanical specimens. 

2. A net made of thongs was employed in capturing game. 

3. Was it the wind above the smoke flue, muttering down into 
the wigwam? 

4. Kindly caring for the sick is a noble work. 

5. The sudden sinking of the mercury betokened a storm. 

6. Hastening to the window, I was startled at the approach of 
twenty armed men, bearing a litter with a crimson cloth spread over it. 

7. Turning to my friend, I chided him for deceiving me. 

8. Goodness is a virtue. 

9. Singing in the open air expands the lungs. 

10. Why are you so careless in studying these lessons? 

11. Suddenly comes the darkness down, with hardly a pause in 
its coming. 

12. Her courage arrested the king's fury. 

13. Supporting his rude civilization by hunting, the red man waited 
for the coming of the pale-faced races. 

14. He looked up from his writing. 

15. Jerusalem, the city of the great king, is glorious for situation. 



VERBAL AND ABSTRACT NOUNS 163 

SEAT WORK 

Copy the following sentences neatly, and underline each 
verbal and each abstract noun, indexing them with V or A, 
as the case requires : — ■ 

1. The beauty of holiness rests over it, softening his features. 

2. The captain continued his reading. 

3. I wait with a thrill in every vein 
For the coming of the hurricane. 

4. I hear the rushing of the blast. 

5. He felt the breath of the morning breeze, blowing over the 
meadows brown. 

6. Turning southward, and galloping over a narrow plain encircled 
by hills, we soon came in sight of Bethlehem. 

7. He heard the barking of the farmer's dog. 

8. You are an excellent scholar, having skill in the turning of 
phrases. 

9. Through each branch-enwoven skylight, 

Speaks He in the breeze. 

LESSON CXI 

Second Form of Naming Action 

87. In the preceding lessons, the names of actions all end 
in ing; but names of actions frequently take another form. 
We may say, " Singing is pleasant," or " To sing is pleasant." 
The latter form is called the infinitive. When the infinitive 
is used to name an action, it is called a verbal noun. The 
participial noun is also a verbal noun. 

88. A verbal noun is a participle or infinitive used to 
name an action. 

1. Skating by moonlight is enchanting. 

2. To skate by moonlight is enchanting. 

3. It is enchanting to skate by moonlight. 

These sentences all express the same thought. In the first, 
the participial form of the verbal noun is used as the subject; 



164 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

in the second, the infinitive form is used in the same way, and 
with the same meaning. In the third sentence, the pronoun it 
is made the subject, and the verbal noun is put in apposition, 
to explain what is meant by it. 

EXERCISE 

Study these examples and explain the form and use of the 
verbal nouns : — 

1 To forgive is divine. 

2. To err is human. 

3. It is human to err. 

4. It is wrong to excite false hopes. 

5. To do good is a privilege. 

6. It is natural to shrink from danger. 

7. It grieves me much to see this quarrel. 

8. Use your knowledge by gratuitously instructing some humble 
friend. 

9. It is not wise to spend too much time in amusement. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy the following sentences, underlining all the verbal 
nouns. Immediately after each sentence, write an explanation 
of the form and use of each verbal noun: — 

1. It is our duty to love our enemies. 

2. To write under such circumstances is discouraging. 

3. Always to give vent to our feelings is ruinous to happiness. 

4. It is wrong to cherish hatred. 

5. Sings the blackened log a tune, 
Learned in some forgotten June 

From a schoolboy at his play. 

6. To make new discoveries was the universal passion. 

7. The prophets accused the Edomites of cherishing toward their 
brethren the Israelites a perpetual hatred, and of rejoicing in their 
calamity. 

8. To die in such a cause is glorious. 

9. The employment of some poor mortals is to cultivate a bad 
temper. 

2. Study the next lesson thoroughly. 






REVIEW EXERCISES 165 

LESSON CXII 

Review Exercises 

1. What do we call a word that denotes action and predi- 
cates it? 

2. What do we call a word that assumes action, but has 
no power to predicate it? 

3. Give sentences containing both these kinds of words. 

4. When is a participle said to be present? 

5. When is it said to be past? 

6. When is it said to be active? 

7. When is it passive? 

8. Give two sentences containing present active participles. 

9. Give two sentences containing present passive par- 
ticiples. 

10. Give a sentence containing a past passive participle. 

11. Participles commonly participate in the nature of what 
two parts of speech? 

12. How is a participle like an adjective? 

13. How is it like a verb. 

14. Give a sentence containing a participle that partici- 
pates in the nature of a verb and a noun. 

15. What are such participles called? 

16. Make sentences that shall contain the words walking, 
parsing, writing, used as participial nouns. 

17. Give sentences in which the same words shall be used 
as ordinary participles ; that is, to limit nouns or pronouns. 

18. Give two sentences each containing a transitive parti- 
ciple and its object. 

19. Give two sentences each containing a participial noun 
and its object. 

20. Parse the noun and its object. 

21. Select or make two sentences each containing a phrase 



166 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

that has a transitive participial noun for the object of its 
preposition. 

22. Parse the preposition, the participial noun, and its 
object. 

23. What two kinds of verbal nouns are there? 

24. Show how a participial verbal noun may be changed to 
an infinitive verbal noun. 

25. Give two sentences that have a participial verbal noun 
for subject. 

26. So change these sentences that the infinitive verbal noun 
shall be in apposition with the subject. 

27. What are abstract nouns? 

28. Give examples. 

SEAT WORK 

Write a composition telling what you have learned about 
participles, abstract nouns, and verbal nouns. 



LESSON CXIII 

Coordinate Words 

1. Charles is a musician. 

2. Joseph is a musician. 

In the examples above, the same thing is predicated of 
two different persons; so the predicates in the two sentences 
are just alike. 

Now we may express both these thoughts in one sentence, 
by putting the subjects one after the other with and between 
them, and using the predicate only once. Thus : — 
Charles and Joseph are musicians. 

In what person and number is the subject of each sentence 
as given at first? 



COORDINATE WORDS 167 

How many separate subjects has the sentence that we 
have formed by uniting the first two into one? 

Of how many persons are we talking in this last sentence? 

What pronoun might be put in place of these subjects? 

So we see that two subjects taken together are the same 
as a plural subject, and must be represented by a pronoun in 
the plural number. Since this is so, we change is to are when 
we combine the two sentences into one. 

In what person and number is is? 

In what person and number is are? 

Why do we drop the word a in combining the sentences? 

In the sentence, Charles and Joseph are musicians, the sub- 
jects are equal in rank. The same thought is predicated of 
both. They have the same relation to the predicate ; it is their 
common property, for it belongs to one as much as to the other. 

89. So these subjects, and all other words used in a similar 
way, are said to be coordinate; that is, of the same order, 
or rank. 

90. Two coordinate terms make a couplet, and three or 
more make a series. 

91. The word and placed between the terms of a couplet 
or series shows that the terms are coordinate; it is therefore 
called a. coordinate conjunction, that is, a joiner of terms 
that are of the same order, and in the same office. 

EXERCISE 

1. Make five sentences each having two subjects. 

2. Combine the following sentences into one, supposing 
the young women to be sisters : — 

1. Constance is traveling in Europe with her father. 

2. Gertrude is traveling in Europe with her father. 

3. Eleanor is traveling in Europe with her father. 

3. Separate the following sentences into others that will ex- 
press the same thoughts, and yet have but one subject each : — 



168 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

1. Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, and Milton were eminent Eng- 
lish poets. 

2. Europe, Asia, and Africa are the grand divisions of the eastern 
continent. 

3. Fruits, grains, and grasses are produced in abundance. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of the following like the model below : — 

1. France and Germany are rival nations. 

2. Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark border on the Baltic Sea. 

3. Peter and James and John went up with Christ into the mount 
of transfiguration. 

4. Cool shades and dews refresh my lonely way. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Mountain and moor were buried in snow. 

1. Mountain and moor are the subjects. 

2. Were buried is the predicate. 

3. And shows that mountain and moor are equal in rank 
and alike related to the predicate. 

4. In snow tells how mountain and moor are covered. 
Snow names the substance employed, and in shows its relation 
to the act of burying. 

LESSON CXIV 

Coordinate Conjunctions 

When we wish to predicate two or more things of the same 
person or object, we use the subject but once, and combine the 
predicates as we did the subjects in the last lesson. Thus: — 

1. Mountains are lofty and grand. 

2. James reads, writes, and ciphers. 

3. The horse is a kind and faithful animal. 
Convert the first and third sentences each into two, and the 

second into three. 



COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS 169 

Note carefully the punctuation in sentence 2, preceding. 

Make other sentences each having more than one predicate. 

Select sentences having coordinate terms in. the predicate. 

So, also, a verb or a preposition may have a couplet or 
series of objects; and a verb may be limited by a couplet of 
adverbs, as seen below. 

1. The sun gives light and heat. 

2. He lectured in New York, Pittsburgh, and Albany. 

3. Hendrick writes easily and rapidly. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the coordinate terms, and tell how they are con- 
nected : — 

1. We admired the beautiful landscape, plucked the bright autumn 
leaves, and rested under the great oak. 

2. The goodness of God calls for gratitude, love, and obedience. 

3. We crossed mountain, lake, and river. 

4. From the chimney top, ascending and slowly expanding into 
the evening air, a thin, blue column of smoke arose. 

5. Is it a good practice to wake at night and sleep by day? 

6. Heard ye the crashing, long and loud, 

Of the chariot of God in the thundercloud? 

SEAT WORK 

Write the parsing of the coordinate conjunctions in the sen- 
tences above, according to this model : — 

MQDEL FOR PARSING 

He wandered through forest, glade, and glen. 

And is a conjunction, coordinate; it is said to join forest, 
glade, and glen, because it shows them to be in the same office. 
It is understood between forest and glade, and expressed be- 
tween glade and glen. These three coordinate terms are all 
objects of the preposition through. 



170 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CXV 

Signification of And, But, Yet, Or, and Nor 

These conjunctions are all alike in their general office of 
showing that the terms joined by them are coordinate; but 
each has a special signification of its own. 

1. And implies that what follows is additional to what has 
gone before. 

2. But implies that what follows it, is opposed to what has 
gone before, or that it is in some way adverse to it in meaning. 

3. Yet suggests that what follows it, is contrary to what 
would be expected from that Yv^hich has gone before. 

4. Or shows that the parts joined by it are to be considered 
separately. 

5. Nor is equivalent to and not, and is usually employed 
to prevent the repetition of a negative word. 

EXERCISE 

Explain the use of the conjunctions, as defined above: — 

1. The twilight deepened and darkened around. 

2. He was tall and thin, but not ill made. 

3. The thing is not probable nor possible. 

4. The laborers turn the crumbling ground, 

Or drop the yellow seed. 

5. I marked his firm yet weary tread. 

6. No welcome greeted our return, nor clang of martial tread. 

7. 'Tis a bleak, wild hill, but green and bright 
In the summer warmth and the midday light. 

— Bryant. 

8. Long they looked and feared and wept within his distant home. 

9. To have learned to know the right thing to do, is not character, 
but to have formed the habit of doing the right thing is character. 

10. Nothing is busier in this busy world than a healthy boy, nor 
can he scarcely be surpassed in keeping others busy. 

11. My daughter is even now dead, but come and lay thy hand upon 
her, and she shall live. 

12. Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing? yet not one of them 
shall fall upon the ground without your Father. 



SIGNIFICATION OF CONJUNCTIONS 171 

Remarks. — In sentence 2, but shows that ill made is equal 
in rank with tall and thin, and in the same office — to predicate 
qualities of he. It also shows that what follows it, is opposed 
in meaning to what goes before, — the qualities denoted by tall 
and thin exist in the person, while that denoted by ill made 
does not exist in him. 

In sentence 3, nor shows that probable and possible are 
equal in rank, and have the same relation to the subject 
— as predicated conditions. It also gives a negative meaning 
to the second term, just as not does to the first; it is equivalent 
to and not. Read the sentence, substituting and not for nor. 

In sentence 4, or shows that turn and drop are equal in 
rank and alike related to the subject — as predicates. It also 
shows that the two actions are to be considered separately ; 
either the actions occurred at different times, or a part of the 
laborers were performing one action, while the other part were 
performing the other. 

In sentence 5, yet shows that firm and weary are equal in 
rank, and alike related to tread — as assumed qualities; it also 
intimates that the quality denoted by weary would not be ex- 
pected to exist in connection with the quality denoted by firm. 

In sentence 7, and is understood between bleak and wild. 
But shows that the two adjectives following it are equal in 
rank with bleak and wild, and in the same relation to hill. It 
also shows that the qualities denoted by the adjectives follow- 
ing it are opposed in nature to the qualities denoted by the 
adjectives preceding it, or, at least, that they are very different. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write or select five sentences containing the five coor- 
dinate conjunctions studied in this lesson, and explain, in writ- 
ing, the use of each. 

2. Study the next lesson thoroughly. 



172 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CXVI 

Punctuation of the Couplet and the Series 

THE COUPLET 

1. Flake after flake they sink in the dark and silent lake. 

2. Faintly, slowly, the bells for vespers rang. 

3. Then they retired, and sank into the deep, 
And helpless imbecility of sleep. 

4. Rivers have small beginnings, or sources. 

5. He could write, and cipher too. 

Each of these sentences contains a couplet. 

In the first sentence, the terms of the couplet are joined by 
the conjunction, and are not limited by other words; so no 
mark of punctuation is required. 

In the second sentence, the conjunction is omitted, and so 
the terms are separated by the comma. 

In the third sentence, the conjunction is not omitted, but 
the limitations of the two verbs are very different, both in form 
and in meaning. Retired is limited only by then, a. simple ad- 
verb of time; while sank, the other term of the couplet, is 
limited by a long, complex phrase, denoting place; hence the 
terms are separated by the comma. 

In the fourth sentence, the terms of the couplet are alike 
in meaning. Sources is only another name for beginnings; for 
the source of a river is its beginning. In all such cases, the 
terms of the couplet should be separated by the comma, and 
another comma should be placed after the second term, unless 
some other mark of punctuation is required in that place. 

In the fifth sentence, the second term of the couplet is 
emphatically distinguished, and for this reason the terms are 
separated by the comma. 



PUNCTUATION OF COUPLET AND SERIES 173 

THE SERIES 

1. Dreamlike, and indistinct, and strange were all things 
around them. 

2. Ever unmoved they stand, 

Solemn, eternal, and proud. 

3. The silence was vast, measureless, complete. 

4. Loud and sudden and near the note of the whippoorwill 
sounded. 

Each of these sentences contains a series. 

In the first sentence, the conjunction occurs between the 
terms throughout ; in the second, it occurs between the last two 
only; while in the third, it is omitted altogether. It may be 
noticed, however, that in all these cases, the terms of the series 
are separated by the comma. When the conjunction occurs 
between the terms throughout, the adding of the comma also 
between the terms tends to emphasize each of the terms, as 
in the first sentence ; while the omission of the comma calls for 
a more rapid reading, and tends to lessen the emphasis on each 
separate term, as in the fourth sentence. 

In the second sentence, the adjectives, solemn, eternal, and 
proud, taken together, make an adjective element that is not 
restrictive, and so the whole group is set off from the rest of 
the sentence by a comma. 

EXERCISE 

Find the couplets and series, and explain their punc- 
tuation : — ■ 

1. His affections were high, and pure, and generous. 

2. The banks of the lovely basin, at its outlet, or southern end, 
were steep but not high. 

3. They are few, but memorable. 

4. Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. 



174 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

5. A hearty, hale old man was Benedict Bellefontaine, the wealth- 
iest farmer of Grand Pre. 

6. Here he paused, and against the trunk 

Of a tall, gray linden leant. 

QUESTIONS AND REMARKS 

1. Why are the terms of the first couplet in the second 
sentence separated by the comma? 

2. Why is the second term followed by the comma ? 

3. Why are the terms of the couplet separated in the third 
sentence ? 

4. In sentence 4, each term of the series is a phrase. 

5. What appositional phrase is found in the fifth sentence? 

6. Why is it set off? 

7. What couplet is found in the same sentence? 

8. Why are its terms separated? 

9. Hearty, hale, and old are adjectives, added to the noun 
man; but old is more intimately related to the noun man than 
the other two are. This may be proved by supplying the con- 
junction. If we should say, " A hearty and hale and old man," 
the sentence would seem very awkward. It would not express 
the thought intended. But we may say, " A hearty and hale 
old man," and it seems all right. The mind first applies the 
quality denoted by old, and then the conception of an old man 
is modified by the qualities denoted by the other adjectives. 
So in the punctuation, we do not regard the three adjectives as 
a series. But the first two are taken as a couplet limiting the 
conception, already formed, of an old man. 

10. How many couplets in the sixth sentence? 

11. What is the first? 

12. Why are its terms separated ? 

13. What is the second couplet? 

14. Why are its terms separated? 

SEAT WORK 

Study the next lesson very carefully, especially the remarks. 



COORDINATE TERMS 175 

LESSON CXVII 

Coordinate Terms 

Note. — Do not forget to give reasons for the punctuation 
of each sentence in all the lessons from this point onward. 
Punctuation is of great practical value. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the couplets, and tell what office they fill in the 
sentence : — 

1. His hand was ready and willing. 

2. His solemn manner and his words touched the deep, mysterious 
chords. 

3. Meek meadowsweet and violet of the ground 

Lean lovingly against the humble stone. 

4. A* good lad and cheerful was Joseph. 

5. A calm and lovely paradise is Italy. 

6. He started from his seat, and gazed around. 

Remarks. — In sentence 1, we say that his hand is ready 
and willing, when we mean that the man is ready and willing 
to work with his hands. The hand is made to mean the 
whole man. 

92. This taking a part to represent the whole is called a 
figure of synecdoche. 

In sentence 2, we compare the emotions to the chords of a 
musical instrument, and the agitation of feeling produced by 
the solemn words and manner, to the trembling of the chords 
when they are touched, or when the wind passes over them. 

The chords are called deep, mysterious chords because they 
produce deep, mysterious sounds. 

Deep, mysterious sounds must mean those that are low and 
long, — such as we could imagine might come from some deep 
place, like a cave, full of mystery because so deep, dark, and 
winding that we know not what mysteries may be concealed 
there. 



176 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

In sentence 3, the flowers are called meek because they 
grow close to the ground and appear by their drooping to 
avoid notice, just as meek people, by their quiet ways, avoid 
attention. 

They are said to lean lovingly because they assume an atti- 
tude that would indicate love in beings that can exercise 
affection. 

The stone is humble because it is cheap and plain, and 
suited to humble people. 

In sentence 5, Italy is called a paradise because it is beau- 
tiful like paradise. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy a sentence containing a couplet; write 
one yourself. 

2. Select and copy a sentence containing a series ; write one 
yourself. 

3. Punctuate your own sentences carefully, and explain* 
the ounctuation of all the sentences. 



LESSON CXVIII 

Coordinate Terms 

Point out all the coordinate terms : — 

1. His noontide glory fell on the cornfields, and the orchards, and 
the softly pictured wood. 

2. At last a gleam of sudden fire shot up behind the walls of snow, 
and tipped each icy spire. 

3. I am poor and old and blind. 

4. Through a thin, dry mist the sun rose, broad and red. 

5. On bright streams and into deep wells shone the high midsum- 
mer sun. 

6. In such a home, beside the Schuylkill's wave, he dwelt in peace 
with God and man. 



COORDINATE TERMS 177 

Remarks. — In sentence 5, on bright streams and into deep 
wells tells where the sun shone. On bright streams tells one 
place, and into deep wells tells another. And shows that these 
two phrases are equal in rank and alike in their use, each being 
used to tell where the sun shines. 

In sentence 6, with God and man tells to whom the peace 
relates. God and man name those with whom he is at peace. 
And shows that God and man are alike related to peace, and 
with shows what that relation is. 

SEAT WORK 

Select and copy sentences containing couplets and series of 
phrases, and explain their office in the sentence. 

lesson cxix 

Coordinate Phrases 

Find the coordinate words and phrases, tell whether they 
form couplets or series, and explain their office in the sen- 
tence : — 

1. The notes of the robin and bluebird are sweet upon wold and 
in wood. 

2. The grass is still verdant on the hills and in the valleys. 

3. The flowers are abundant along the margin of rivers, and in 
hedgerows, and among the woods. 

4. In taste, in grace, in facility, in happy invention, and in the 
richness and harmony of coloring, he was equal to the great masters 
of the renowned ages. 

5. Steep is the western side, shaggy and wild with mossy trees, 
and pinnacles of flint, and many a hanging crag. 

— Bryant. 

93. Coordinate phrases are punctuated in the same way 
as coordinate words. 

Explain the punctuation in the sentences above. 

12 



178 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Study the next lesson, and select five sentences containing 
coordinate clauses. 



lesson cxx 

Coordinate Clauses 

94. We have learned that every sentence must contain 
a subject and a predicate, and that each sentence expresses a 
complete thought. Very often two or more sentences are so 
closely related in thought that we wish to unite them into one 
sentence. One way of doing this is to connect them with 
coordinate conjunctions. When sentences are so united into 
one, each of the original sentences is called a clause. 

95. When clauses are united by coordinate connectives, 
they are called coordinate clauses. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the clauses, and tell how they are connected: — 

1. Sudden and swift a whistling ball came out of a wood, and the 
voice was still. 

2. The boughs in the morning wind are stirred, and the woods 
their songs renew. 

3. The spice lamps in the alabaster urns burned dimly, and the 
white and fragrant smoke curled indolently on the chamber walls. 

4. Freshly the cool breath of the coming eve stole through the 
lattice, and the dying girl felt it upon her forehead. 

5. Sorrow and silence are strong, and patient endurance is godlike. 

6. The hay appeareth, and the tender grass showeth itself, and 
herbs of the mountains are gathered. 

— Proverbs 27: 25. 

7. But in the fisherman's cottage 

There shines a ruddier light, 
And a little face at the window 
Peers out into the night. 

— Longfellow. 



COORDINATE CLAUSES 179 

96. When two or more clauses are closely connected in 
thought, and joined by a conjunction, they are separated by 
the comma, unless the clauses themselves, one or more of 
them, contain important divisions that are already separated by 
the comma. When the clauses are thus subdivided, the semi- 
colon instead of the comma is placed between them. (See 
sentence 4 in Lesson 122.) 

In sentence 1, sudden and swift are adverbs, telling how the 
ball came. They mean the same as suddenly and swiftly, but 
the poet's license allows him to leave off the ly y as it thus 
makes better rhythm. 

In sentence 2, the woods are said to renew their songs, 
when the meaning is that the birds renew their songs in the 
woods. 

In sentence 3, the smoke is said to curl indolently because 
it moves slowly, like an indolent person. 

In sentence 4, the gentle breeze of evening is compared to 
breath because it strikes one softly, as the breath does. It is 
called the breath of evening because it comes with the evening 
— the evening produces it. 

In sentence 7, it is said that " a little face" peers out into 
the night, though it is really the eyes that do the looking. By 
a figure of speech, the whole is sometimes put for a part, in 
this way." (Compare Sec. 92.) 

SEAT WORK 

1. Rewrite each of the sentences above in two sentences 
by omitting the coordinate connectives. 

2. Parse the conjunction according to this model: — 

Sentence i 
And is a conjunction, coordinate; it joins the clause " sud- 
den and swift a whistling ball came out of a wood," with the 
clause " the voice was still," thus forming one sentence out 
of two. 



180 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CXXI 

Coordinate Constructions 

Point out the coordinate constructions, and tell how they 
are connected and punctuated : — 

1. Gentle but firm were his words of reproof. 

2. They hear not, nor see, nor know. 

3. Of mass or prayer there was no need. 

4. Uttered not, yet comprehended, 
Is the spirit's voiceless prayer. 

5. Thou changest not, but I am changed. 

6. No other voice nor sound was heard. 

7. Is it night, or is a storm coming on? 

8. They shouted long and loud, yet no answer came. 

9. They conquered, but Bozzaris fell, bleeding at every vein. 
10. Go not forth in the morning, nor in the evening. 

Remark. — In sentence 5, the thought expressed in the 
second clause is adverse to that expressed in the first; for in 
the first the action is denied, while in the second it is affirmed. 

SEAT WORK 

Select and copy five sentences containing coordinate con- 
structions, and explain the punctuation. 

LESSON CXXII 

Coordinate Constructions 

Point out the coordinate conjunctions, and tell what they 
connect : — 

1. She breathes, but she speaks not. 

2. Few were his words of rebuke, but deep in the hearts of his 

people 
Sank they, and sobs of contrition succeeded the passionate 
outbreak. 

— Longfellow. 

3. The day brought no food nor shelter for him. 



COORDINATE CONSTRUCTIONS 181 

4. So came the autumn, and passed, and the winter; yet Gabriel 
came not. 

5. No more thou sittest on thy tawny hills 

In indolent repose, 
Or pour'st the crystal of a thousand rills 
Down from thy house of snows. 

— Bayard Taylor. 

6. Speech is silvern, but silence is golden. 

7. Deep is the sleep of the dead; 
Low is their pillow of dust. 

Remarks. — In sentence 2, the writer uses the word hearts 
to denote the feelings of the people. He says that the words 
sank into their hearts, when he means that the sentiments ex- 
pressed by the words affected their feelings to such a degree 
as not to be easily forgotten, just as anything that sinks deeply 
into a body, is not easily removed. 

In sentence 3, the day is said to bring no food nor shelter, 
because none was found on that day. 

Sentence 4 has two subjects in the first clause, and the two 
actions denoted by came and passed are predicated of both of 
them. The meaning is that autumn and winter came and 
passed. 

In sentence 5, the writer speaks to California as he would 
to a person. In a preceding stanza, he says : — 

" O fair young land ! the youngest, fairest far 
Of which our world can boast." 

And in the next : — - 

" How art thou conquered, tamed in all the pride 
Of savage beauty still! 
How brought, O panther of the splendid hide, 
To know thy master's will ! " 

97. The figure of speech used here is a variety of per- 
sonification, which is sometimes called apostrophe. 

In sentence 6, speech is called silvern because it is valuable 



182 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

— a precious gift ; and silence is said to be golden because in 
some instances it is better than speech. 

In sentence 7, the conjunction is omitted between the two 
clauses, and so they are separated by the semicolon. 

SEAT WORK 

Rewrite each of the seven sentences above in two sentences 
by omitting the coordinate conjunction. In sentence 5, you will 
need to repeat a few words in the second part, since they are 
understood from the first part when joined together. 

LESSON CXXIII 

Associated Conjunctions 

It is midsummer, but yet the air is cold. 

The clauses of this sentence are joined by but yet. But 
shows them to be equal in rank and adverse in meaning. Yet 
is added to show that what follows would not be expected from 
what has gone before. 

Still, notzinthstanding ', nevertheless, else, and some other 
words are used in a similar way, either for emphasis, or to 
suggest the nature of the thought that is to follow. 

98. Some of these associated conjunctions seem much 
like adverbs; but these words are employed chiefly to show the 
relation of thoughts rather than to modify them. 

EXERCISE 

Find the associated conjunctions, and tell the force of each 
one : — ■ 

1. They were silenced, but yet they yielded not. 

2. It was a lodge of ample size, 

But strange of structure and device. 

— Scott. 

3. I never knew thee nor thy peers; 
And yet my eyes are filled with tears. 



ASSOCIATED CONJUNCTIONS 183 

4. Not a breath crept through the rosy air, and yet the forest leaves 
were stirred with prayer. 

5. Every pine, and fir, and hemlock 

Wore ermine too dear for an earl, 
And the poorest twig on the elm tree 
Was ridged inch deep with pearl. 

— James Russell Lowell. 

6. Now from the stream the rocks recede, 
But leave between no sunny mead. 

— Scott. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the full analysis of sentences 4 and 6, with correct 
punctuation. 



lesson cxxiv 

Correlative Conjunctions 

1. Both Jane and Lucy were present. 

2. Either Philip or his brother is going to Europe. 

In sentence 1, both is used with and to show that Jane and 
Lucy are alike related to the predicate. The general meaning 
would be the same if the word both were omitted ; but both 
seems to strengthen the word and, and make the idea of the 
relation more prominent. 

In sentence 2, either is used as both is in sentence 1. Either 
gives emphasis to the idea that Philip and his brother are to 
be regarded separately with respect to the action predicated. 

99. Such words are called correlative conjunctions, 
because they show the corelation of the terms they connect. 

The introductory correlative gives emphasis to the relation 
expressed by the principal one, by awakening an expectation 
of such a relation. 



184 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



EXERCISE 



Find the correlative conjunctions or conjunctive phrases, 
and explain their force and what they connect, somewhat like 
the models below : — 

1. He is either sick or fatigued. 

2. Neither the Austrians nor the French were victorious. 

3. He either left the key in the door, or else the robber had a 
false key. 

4. Not only the prime minister but also the king was expected. 

5. Not only am I instructed by this exercise, but I am also 
invigorated. 

6. Both religion and reason condemn us. 

7. Not only the wise and the learned but also the common people 
heard him gladly. 

8. For Romans in Rome's quarrel spared neither land nor gold, 
Nor son nor wife, nor limb nor life, in the brave days of old. 

MODELS 
Neither truthfulness nor elegance was sacrificed. 

Neither is a conjunction, coordinate, correlative to nor, 
and used to give emphasis to the relation expressed by that 
word. 

Nor is a conjunction, coordinate, correlative to neither; it 
shows that truthfulness and elegance are equal in rank, and 
alike related to the predicate. It also gives a negative mean- 
ing to the second term as neither does to the first. 

Not only is energy required but perseverance also. 

Not only is a conjunction, coordinate; it is correlative to 
but also, and awakens an expectation of the relation denoted by 
those words. 

Note. — This method of parsing these words is based upon 
the best of authority, and seems to be, on the whole, most 
consistent and profitable. The attempt to dispose of some of 
them as adverbs has not been very satisfactory. 



CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS 185 

But also is a conjunction, coordinate, correlative to not 
only. But is the principal conjunction and also is associated 
with it. 

Both energy and perseverance are required. 

Both is a conjunction, coordinate; correlative to and, and 
used to give emphasis to the relation expressed by that word. 

And is a conjunction, coordinate, correlative to both; it 
is used to show that energy and perseverance are equal in rank 
and alike related to the predicate. 

SEAT WORK 

Study Lessons 113-118 for the review in the next lesson. 



lesson cxxv 

Review Exercises 

1. What way have we of shortening the expression when 
we wish to predicate the same thought of two or more per- 
sons or things? 

2. Give examples. 

3. In what way may we sometimes shorten the expression 
when we wish to predicate several thoughts of the same per- 
son or thing ? 

4. Give examples. 

5. Give other examples of coordinate words. 

6. Why are these words said to be coordinate ? 

7. What term is applied to two coordinate words taken 
together ? To more than two ? 

8. What class of words is employed to show that the 
terms of a couplet or series are equal in rank and in the same 
office? 



186 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

9. Give a list of the words most commonly employed in 
this way. 

10. In what respect are they all alike in their use? 

11. What is the special signification of each? 

12. When should the terms of the couplet be separated by 
the comma? 

13. How should the terms of a series be separated? 

14. What exception sometimes occurs? 

15. What kind of adjective elements are set off by the 
comma? — ■ Those that are not restrictive, 

SEAT WORK 

Select and copy sentences containing adjective elements of 
each of the following kinds : — 

1. An adjective phrase consisting of adjectives joined co- 
ordinately. 

2. An adjective phrase introduced by a preposition that has 
a couplet or series of nouns for its object. 

3. An adjective phrase that consists of an adjective word 
having other words or phrases limiting it. 

4. A participial phrase. 

5. An appositional phrase. 

Notice how these phrases are punctuated, and tell why they 
are so punctuated. 

Review Lessons 119-124. 



LESSON CXXVI 

Review Exercises 

1. Give two sentences each containing a couplet of phrases. 

2. Give a sentence containing a series of phrases. 

3. Give two sentences containing coordinate clauses. 

4. When are coordinate clauses separated by the comma? 



REVIEW EXERCISES 187 

5. When one or more of the coordinate clauses are sepa- 
rated into important divisions by the comma, what mark is 
used to separate the clauses from one another? 

6. When coordinate clauses have no conjunction between 
them, what mark is commonly used to separate them? 

7. How are coordinate phrases punctuated? 

8. Give two sentences that will illustrate the use of asso- 
ciated conjunctions. 

9. Analyze one such sentence, and parse the conjunctions. 

10. Give two sentences that will illustrate the use of cor- 
relative conjunctions. 

11. Analyze one such sentence, and parse the conjunctions. 

12. Give a sentence in . which correlative and associated 
conjunctions are used together. 

13. Parse all the words in the following examples: — 

1. Looking down, . 
I behold the shadowy crown 
Of the dark and haunted wood. 

2. Is it changed, or am I changed? 

3. Neither highway nor human habitation appeared, but still we 
pressed on through biting cold and blinding storm. 

SEAT WORK 

Write a composition on what you have learned about verbs. 



lesson cxxvn 

Adjectives Limiting a Noun Understood 

1. Many were hurt by the accident. 

2. Some said one thing, and some another. 

100. In the first sentence, the thought is that many people 
were hurt by the accident. We omit the word people because 
the meaning is just as clear without it The omitted word is 



188 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

said to be understood, and the omission of such words is called 
ellipsis. Restoring the omitted word is what we call sup- 
plying the ellipsis. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What words are understood in the second sentence? 

2. Supply all the ellipses. 

3. In the first sentence, the real subject is the noun persons 
or people understood; but sometimes the word many is called 
the subject, because it seems to represent the noun understood. 
For the present, at least, w r e will say that the noun understood 
is the subject. 

4. How many clauses are there in the second sentence? 

5. How are these clauses joined? 

6. What is the subject of each? 

7. What is the verb in the second clause? 

8. What is the object of that verb? 

EXERCISE 

Point out and supply the ellipses : — 

1. One was killed, and several were injured. 

2. Eternal life is offered to all men, yet few accept it. 

3. Two were excused, and three were punished. 

4. Many are called, but few are chosen. 

5. This is a bright day. 

6. This book is valuable, but that is worthless. 

7. Allured by hope, or driven by fear, all crowded to the altar rail. 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

One is an adjective, limiting; added to a noun understood, 
to tell how many. In representing the noun understood, it be- 
comes a substantive, and may be regarded as the subject of 
the sentence. 

101. A substantive is a noun or anything that fills the 
office of a noun. All pronouns are substantives, and some- 
times even clauses become so, as will be seen hereafter. 



ADJECTIVES LIMITING A NOUN UNDERSTOOD 189 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select five sentences, and write five, each containing an 
adjective limiting a noun understood. 

2. Rewrite the sentences, supplying the ellipses. 

LESSON CXXVIII 

Possessive Pronouns Limiting a Noun Understood 

1. He refused my offer, but accepted John's. 

2. Both my child and thy child are lost. 

3. The fault is not only mine but thine also. 

4. His was a checkered life. 

Supply the ellipsis in the first sentence above. 

Point out the possessive pronouns in the second sentence, 
and notice how they are spelled. 

Rewrite the third sentence, supplying the ellipses. 

On supplying the ellipses, what change did you have to 
make in the possessive pronouns ? 

By this, we see that my and thy are changed to mine and 
thine when used to limit a noun understood. 

Anciently, mine and thine were often used when the noun 
was expressed, as may be seen in the Bible. 

The possessive noun does not change its form when used 
to limit a noun understood, as may be seen in sentence 1 
above ; and by supplying the ellipsis in sentence 4, it appears 
that the same is true of the pronoun his. 

Make sentences in which the possessive case of the pro- 
nouns we, you, her, and they shall be used to limit nouns 
understood. 

Supply the ellipses, and see what change will be required 
in the possessive pronouns. 



190 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

The adjective other, when used to limit a plural noun 
understood, changes its form by adding s. Thus : — 

He saved others, himself he cannot save. 

None is seldom used to limit a noun expressed. It is 
peculiar in other respects; for, although it seems to be made 
up of no and one, it requires a plural verb after it; as — 
None are free from sin. 

But whenever the noun is expressed, it is singular, and is 
followed by a singular verb, as seen in the example below. 

He swam the Eske River, where ford there zvas none. 

— iScott. 

Note. — In this example there is merely a word of eu- 
phony, and none limits ford; but if it came immediately 
before its noun, it would be changed to no. Thus: There 
zvas no ford. 

One and other take the possessive sign whenever a noun 
in the possessive case is understood after them. Thus : — 

1. It is hard to control one's thoughts. 

2. Each strove to save the other's life. 

Either and neither should be used with reference to two 
things only. Any or none should be used when more than two 
things are referred to. 

EXERCISE 

Point out and supply the ellipses : — 

1. You took mine and left yours. 

2. The cattle upon a thousand hills are mine. 

3. I feel his icy fingers, clasping mine amid the darkness. 

4. The lark's bold song comes from the skies, but hers comes from 
the earth. 

5. His, not mine, are the gifts. 

6. Those men are fishermen, and the boats on the beach are theirs. 
Ours are moored in the shadow of that great rock. 



POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS LIMITING NOUN UNDERSTOOD 191 

In sentence 5, we may transpose, and supply the ellipsis, 
thus : — - 

The gifts are his, and are not mine. 

But it seems as well to regard the copula already expressed 
as showing that both thoughts are predicated, and the negative 
adverb not as having the power to cause it to predicate a denial 
of the second condition. 

Remarks. — In sentence 2, a thousand tells how many hills 
are meant. Thousand names one of the great orders of num- 
bers, and a shows that just one thousand is meant. 

Thousand is here used, not to denote a definite number, but 
a great many. 

102. A pronoun is said to be personal when we can tell 
by its form whether it 'denotes the speaker, the person spoken 
to, or the person spoken of. None but personal pronouns have 
thus far been noticed in the examples of these lessons. Rel- 
ative and interrogative pronouns will be introduced hereafter. 

SEAT WORK 

Rewrite the following sentences, supplying the ellipses : — 

1. These books are mine, those are yours, the others are Luther's. 

2. This is the forest primeval. 

3. On their knees they received the queen's blessing; some kissed 
her hands, and others her mantle. 

4. There is a monk in Melrose tower, 

He speaketh word to none. 

5. These and many more with King Olaf sailed the seas. 

6. Many run well for a season, but few persevere to the end. 

7. Many are called, but few are chosen. 

8. All thine are mine, and all mine are thine. 

9. Do unto others as ye would that others should do unto you. 
10. A hearty welcome is extended to all. 



192 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CXXIX 

Nouns Independent by Address 

1. Sometimes we use a person's name for the sake of get- 
ting his attention. Thus : — 

James, you are too bold. 

2. Not infrequently we use the name of the person with 
whom we are conversing, not so much for the purpose of gain- 
ing his attention, as for giving earnestness to what we are 
saying. 

3. In the sentence, — 

You are wrong, Julia. 

the word Julia names the person spoken to, and tells who is 
meant by you. It is probable that several persons are present, 
and that the speaker wishes to show which one he is address- 
ing, and so speaks her name. 

103. Since it has no part in bringing out the thought ex- 
pressed in the sentence, a noun thus used in addressing a per- 
son, is said to be independent by address. Note how such 
terms are punctuated. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the nouns that are independent by address, and 
tell which ones you think give earnestness to what is being 
said : — - 

1. Thou speakest truly, poet. 

2. Come hither, my little daughter. 

3. Your coming, friends, revives me. 

4. Fight on, brave, true heart, through dark fortune and through 
bright. 

5. Come, gentle dreams. 

6. Spare me, dread angel of reproof. 



NOUNS INDEPENDENT BY ADDRESS 193 

7. Stay, rivulet, nor haste so soon from the lovely, luxuriant vale. 

8. Mary, be a good girl. 

9. I greet thee, bonny boat ! 

10. England, with all thy faults, I love thee still. 

11. Weep, Albin ! to death and captivity led. 

12. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean — roll ! 

13. Come back, come back, Horatius ! 

104. This lesson contains several examples in which in- 
animate objects are addressed as if they had intelligence, and 
could understand language. Since we speak to them as if they 
were persons, they are said to be personified. (See Sec. 54.) 

In sentence 4, the heart is taken to represent the whole 
person. What is this figure called? (See Lesson 117.) 

105. A noun independent by address, together with its 
limiting words, should be set off by the comma, and when 
exclamatory, should be followed by an exclamation point. 

SEAT WORK 

Select five and write five sentences, each containing a noun 
independent by address, with correct punctuation. 



lesson cxxx 

Address Accompanied by Emotion 

A noun independent by address is often accompanied by 
a word used to express deep feeling or sudden emotion. 
Thus : — ■ 

Lord, thou art very great! 

106. A word used wholly to express emotion is called an 
interjection. 

In this sentence, O Lord invokes the attention of God, and 
is used to denote an emotion of reverence and awe. 

It is well to note in this connection that the form O is used 
for address, while oh is used merely to express emotion. 

13 



194 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

EXERCISE 

Point out the interjections and the nouns independent by 
address, and tell what each interjection seems to denote: — 

1. O dread and cruel deep, reveal the secret concealed beneath thy 
waves ! 

2. O brothers ! pray for me. 

3. Fear not, O little flock! 

4. Your voiceless lips, O flowers ! are living preachers. 

5. Keep, O pleasant Melvin stream, 
Thy sweet laugh, in shade and gleam ! 

— Whittier. 

6. O Rivermouth Rocks, how sad a sight 
Ye saw in the light of breaking day ! 

7. Ah, brother ! only I and thou 
Are left of all that circle now. 

8. Hear, O Lord, out of heaven thy dwelling place. 

9. O death, where is thy sting? 
O grave, where is thy victory? 

10. O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets ! 

11. O my Father, if it be possible, let this cup pass from me. 

Remarks. — In sentence 6, how is an adverb, added to sad 
to denote an unusual degree of the quality. The sadness is 
so great as to cause deep emotion. 

In sentence 7, / and thou, taken together, represent the 
speaker and the one associated with him. Thus they become 
nearly equivalent to we, so the verb takes the same form as 
it would if 'the subject were zve. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy from the Bible and from poetry ten 
sentences containing interjections and nouns independent by 
address, noting the punctuation. 

2. Tell in writing what each denotes. 



ADVERBIAL PHRASES WITHOUT A PREPOSITION 195 

LESSON CXXXI 

Adverbial Phrases Without a Preposition 

107. The adverbial phrase is often used without a prepo- 
sition. The preposition is understood, or at least a relation 
similar to that commonly expressed by a preposition, but the 
relation word cannot always be supplied ; for, in some instances, 
there seems to be no> word that is exactly suited to express the 
relation. 

Some of the most common omissions of the preposition 
may be illustrated as follows : — ■ 

1. He came to his home on the Tweed on the seventh day 
of April, and died on the third day { of May. 

2. He came home April fth, and died May 3d. 

It is plain that the relation of the man's home to the act 
of his coming is the same in the second sentence as it is in the 
first; and that the word home in the second sentence tells where 
he came, just as to his home does in the first, the preposition 
to being understood before it. 

It is also plain that April fth is equivalent to on the seventh 
day of April; and May 3d, to on the third day of May. 

In the analysis we say that home is used to tell whither he 
came. 

Home names the place, and the relation of the place to the 
act of coming is understood to be the same as would be de- 
noted by the word to. April Jth tells when he came, and May 
3d when he died. 

We parse home, April, May, as nouns, each the object of 
a preposition; and seventh, and third, as adjectives, each limit- 
ing a noun understood. 

This lesson will help us to understand that we more often 
name phrases from their use than from how they are made up. 



196 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



EXERCISE 



Find the adverbial phrases with a preposition and those 
without, and point out what each one tells : — . 

1. My friend came in the evening. 

2. The general arrived last evening. 

3. Maria taught school last summer. 

4. The meeting continued two weeks. 

5. We traveled forty miles a day. 

6. My brother spent six months in Europe. 

7. He remained three months in Paris. 

8. The wall was six feet high. 

9. The cloth was thirty inches wide. 

10. I came home yesterday. 

11. Today thy Saviour calls. 

Remarks. — In sentence 5, forty miles is an adverbial 
phrase telling how far we traveled. A day means the same as 
in a day, and tells how long it took us to travel forty miles. 

In sentence 6, months is the object of the transitive verb 
spent; but in sentence 7, months is the object of a preposition 
understood; for remained is an intransitive verb, and three 
months is a phrase telling how long the man remained. 

The meaning of sentences 8 and 9 may be expressed thus : — 

The wall was high unto six feet. 

The cloth was wide unto thirty inches. 

In sentence 10, yesterday is a noun, 3d, sing., neut, and ob- 
ject of a preposition understood. It tells when I came home, 
for it is what remains of an adverbial phrase. Today is used 
in sentence 11 just as yesterday is in sentence 10. 

SEAT WORK 

Use each of the following expressions adverbially in a writ- 
ten sentence : — ■ 

Last week, tomorrow, next year, day before yesterday, six weeks, 
fifty feet high, home, a yard. 



COMPARISON INTRODUCED BY LIKE 197 

LESSON CXXXII 

Comparison Introduced by Like 

Not infrequently the best way to describe a thing with 
which our hearers are not familiar is to compare it with some- 
thing well known to them. Such comparisons are often intro- 
duced by the word like, as shown in the following sentence : — 

The masts shake like quivering reeds. 

1. Like quivering reeds tells by comparison how the 
masts shake. 

2. Like introduces the comparison. 

3. Masts is the first term, and — 

4. Reeds is the second term. 

5. Masts and reeds are compared in regard to an action, — 
the act of shaking. _ 

Like is regarded by some authors as a preposition; and by 
others as an adjective or an adverb, with the preposition to or 
unto understood after it. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the phrases that express comparison, and the 
terms that are compared : — 

1. Through woods and mountain passes, 

The winds, like anthems, roll. 

2. Like the wings of sea birds, 

Flash the whitecaps of the sea. 

3. Forest leaves are bright, 
And fall like flakes of light, 

To the ground. -Bryant. 

4. Like a demon of the night 

He passed, and vanished from my sight. 

5. Scattered were they like flakes of snow. 

6. They fought like brave men, long and well. 

7. A solemn fear on the listening crowd 
Fell like the shadow of a cloud. 

— Whit tier. 



198 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

8. Straight there arose from the forest the awful sound of the 
war whoop, 
And, like a flurry of snow on the whistling wind of December, 
Swift and sudden and keen came a flight of feathery arrows. 

— Longfellow. 

108. Describing things by formal comparison, as in the 
sentences of this lesson, is called a figure of Simile. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy some similes from poetry and the Bible. 

2. Review Lessons 127-132 with care. 



LESSON CXXXIII 

Review Exercises 

1. Give three examples of the ellipsis of a noun after an 
adjective. 

2. Analyze such a sentence and parse the adjective. 

3. What peculiarity has the adjective other, when used to 
limit a noun understood ? 

4. When does it take the possessive sign? 

5. What other adjective takes the possessive sign in the 
same way? 

6. Give some of the peculiarities of the adjective none. 

7. Give an example of a possessive noun used to limit a 
noun understood. 

8. Show by example how each of the possessive pronouns 
may be used in the same way. 

9. Parse the possessive noun and pronouns in these sen- 
tences. 

10. What change is required in the possessive pronouns 
when they limit a noun understood? 

11. Does the possessive noun require any change when used 
in a similar way? 



REVIEW EXERCISES 199 

12. Show from the Bible how mine and thine were once 
used to limit a noun expressed. 

13. In such words as ours, yours, theirs, should the apos- 
trophe be used before the sf 

14. What caution must be observed in regard to the ad- 
jectives either and neither? 

15. What expression should be used in speaking of re- 
ciprocal action between two persons? — Each other. 

16. What expression should be used to denote reciprocal 
action among a greater number than two? 

17. Is it right to say, " The three boys divided the melon 
among themselves " ? 

18. Is it right to say, " Thomas and Anson divided the 
melon among themselves " ? 

19. For what three leading purposes do we use a person's 
name without giving it any office in the sentence ? 

20. Give examples. 

21. What do we say of a noun thus used? Why? 

22. Give examples of a noun independent by address, and 
accompanied by a word denoting emotion. 

23. What do we call a word that is used wholly to express 
emotion ? 

24. Parse the independent noun and the interjection in one 
of the examples just given. 

25. Give examples of adverbial phrases without a con- 
nective. 

26. Parse the italicized words in the following : — 

1. Yesterday he wept, but today he rejoices. 

2. Ah! sir, the lake is three hundred miles long. 

3. The bullets fell like hail. 

27. Analyze the third sentence. 

28. What figure is employed in this sentence ? 

29. When do we use a figure of simile? 



200 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Look over the first seventy-five lessons of this book, and 
notice what is taught in them.. 

LESSON CXXXIV 

Compound Sentences 
109. When two or more sentences are united into one by 
coordinate connectives, the one sentence is said to be com- 
pound. For example, the first sentence below is composed 
of two sentences : — 

1. The sun is dim in the thickened sky. 

2. The clouds in the sullen darkness rest. 

Joining these two by and, we have a compound sentence. 

Sometimes the connective is omitted between the parts of 
a compound sentence, and only a comma or semicolon is used, 
as in the second and fourth sentences below. 

EXERCISE 

Separate the following sentences into two or more single 
sentences, and note how they are connected : — ■ 

1. The sun is dim in the thickened sky, and the clouds in sullen 
darkness rest. 

2. With even strokes their scythes they swing, 
In tune their merry whetstones ring. 

— /. T. Trowbridge. 

3. The pine is bending his proud top, and now among the nearer 
groves, the chestnut and oak are tossing their green boughs about. 

4. The splendor falls on castle walls, 

And snowy summits old in story; 
The long light shakes across the lakes, 
And the wild cataract leaps in glory. 
— Tennyson. 

5. I sift the snow on the mountains below, 

And the great pines groan aghast. 

— Shelley. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES 201 

- Remarks. — In sentence 1, the darkness is called sullen 
because it is gloomy, like the countenance of a sullen person. 

In sentence 2, the zvhetstones are said to be merry because 
the sound they produce upon the scythes is such as people 
who are merry would be likely to make. The mowers are the 
ones who really possess the quality. 

In sentence 3, the top of the pine is said to be proud be- 
cause it rises so high above the other trees of the forest, just 
as some people are proud when they have attained a position 
above their fellows. 

In sentence 5, the pines are said to groan because men or 
beasts would groan if they had to bear so heavy a load of 
snow. 

SEAT WORK 

Look over Lessons 76-133, and notice what is taught in 
them. 

LESSON CXXXV 

Coordinate Clauses 

Separate the following sentences as you did in the pre- 
ceding lesson: — 

1. The tall maize rolls up its long green leaves; the clover droops 
its tender foliage and declines its blooms. 

2. And prancing steeds, in trappings gay, 
Whirl the bright chariot o'er the way. 

3. Sweet woodland music sinks and swells; 
The brooklet rings its tinkling bells ; 
The swarming insects drone and hum; 
The partridge beats his throbbing drum. 

— /. T. Trowbridge. 

4. But, silent, sinew bows were strung, 
And, sudden, heavy quivers hung, 
And, swiftly, to the battle sprung 
Tall, painted braves, with tufted hair, 
Like death-black banners in the air. 

— Joaquin Miller. 



202 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

Remarks. — In sentence 1, the two clauses have no con- 
junction between them; for this reason they are separated by 
the semicolon instead of the comma. 

Sometimes, especially in poetry, when the thought is closely 
connected, the comma is used instead of the semicolon, as in 
the second sentence in the preceding lesson. 

In sentence 2, and shows that this sentence is equal in 
rank with what has gone before, and that it expresses an addi- 
tional thought. 

Sentence 3 consists of four clauses. The conjunction is 
omitted between them; so they are separated by the semicolon. 

Sentence 4 consists of three clauses, joined by and, and 
closely related in sense; so they are separated by the comma. 

Silent, sudden, and swiftly are all adverbs, the ly being 
dropped from the first two to preserve the rhythm of the 
poetry. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy five compound sentences. 

2. Draw one line under each single sentence in the com- 
pound, and two lines under the connectives. 

p - 1 

LESSON CXXXVI 

Synoptical Review 

1. Distinguishing Objects — Nouns 

In language, we need a multitude of names to distinguish 
the great variety of objects of which we wish to speak. 

We need, (1) Names for things regarded as a whole, and 
names for their parts; (2) Names for one or more things be- 
longing to the same class, and names for individual persons or 
objects; (3) Names for single things, names for two or more 
things of the same kind, and names for collections of objects; 



SYNOPTICAL REVIEW 203 

(4) Names for males, names for females, and names for things 
that have no sex. 

2. Qualities and Conditions of Objects — Qualifying Adjectives 

In talking of objects, we often wish to speak of their 
qualities and conditions; so we must have words to denote 
those qualities and conditions. 

Sometimes we wish to state positively that the quality ex- 
ists in a thing; but at other times we wish merely to mention 
it incidentally, as though it were a quality already known to 
exist in the thing under consideration. 

Sometimes we wish to talk of the quality itself; and for 
this purpose we need names for qualities. 

Qualities are commonly expressed by single words, but in 
many instances by groups of words. 

3. Actions Predicated — Verbs 

We also need a great number of words to denote the 
actions of persons and things ; for we speak of actions oftener 
than of qualities. 

Sometimes we wish to speak of an action performed by a 
thing, and sometimes of an action received by it. 

Sometimes we wish to speak of both the qualities and the 
actions .of a thing, and then we make use of action words and 
quality words in the same sentence. 

4. Alluding to Objects — Pronouns 

When any one wishes to speak of himself, or of any one 
that he is talking to, there is need of special words to repre- 
sent the speaker or the person spoken to; for if the name were 
used, it might be taken to mean another person of the same 
name. It is also convenient to allude to a person that has 
already been spoken of, without repeating his name. So we 
have a set of words for the express purpose of alluding to the 
speaker, or to the speaker and those associated with him; to 



204 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

the person or persons spoken to; and to the person or persons 
spoken of. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why do we need a multitude of names in language? 

2. What are these names called? 

3. Give examples of nouns used to name whole things. 
Nouns used to name parts of things. 

4. Why do we need the two kinds of nouns called com- 
mon and proper? 

5. Why do we need nouns in both the singular and the 
plural number? 

6. Why must we have nouns in the three different 
genders? 

7. How are singular nouns commonly changed to plural 
nouns ? 

8. When does the syllable es have to be added to some 
nouns to form the plural ? 

9. In what different ways do nouns ending in y form their 
plural? Nouns ending in of In f? In fe? 

10. How are the different genders distinguished? 

11. Why do we need qualifying adjectives? 

12. In what two different ways are they used? Give 
examples. 

13. In what two ways are qualities expressed? 

14. Why do we need verbs in language? 

15. Give examples of verbs consisting each of a single 
word. 

16. Give examples of verbs each consisting of two words. 

17. Why do we need two words in the latter case? 

18. Give examples of verbs which represent the action as 
received by the subject. Performed by the subject. 

19. Give a sentence that assumes a quality of some thingj 
and predicates an action of the same thing. 



SYNOPTICAL REVIEW 205 

20. When are verbs said to be regular? When irregular? 

21. What is the difference between a transitive verb and 
an intransitive verb? 

22. What is the difference between an intransitive verb 
and a copula? 

23. When do we employ a transitive verb in the active 
voice ? 

24. When do we employ a transitive verb in the passive 
voice ? 

25. When do we employ the past tense? When the 
present? 

26. For what different purposes do we use a verb in the 
imperative mode? 

27. What do we call the different forms that a verb takes 
to agree with its subject? 

28. What is the only verb that has person and number 
forms in the past tense ? 

29. What change do ordinary verbs have in the present 
tense? In the past tense? 

30. What different forms does the verb to be have in the 
present tense? In the past tense? 

31. Why do we need pronouns in language? 

32. What four forms of the pronoun are used to repre- 
sent the speaker? 

33. What four are used to represent the speaker and those 
associated with him? 

34. What three are used to represent the person or persons 
spoken to? 

35. What three are used to represent a male that is spo- 
ken of? 

36. What three to represent a female that is spoken of? 

37. What two to represent a thing that has no sex? 

38. What four are used to represent two or more persons 
or things spoken of? 



206 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

39. Which of these forms are said to be in the first per- 
son? Which in the second? Which in the third? Why? 



LESSON CXXXVII 

Synoptical Review 

5. Distinguishing Objects of the Same Kind — Limiting Adjectives 

In talking of objects of the same kind, we often need 
words to tell just which one or which ones are meant. 

Sometimes we need words to tell definitely how many are 
meant, and at other times, when we do not know the definite 
number, or knowing, do not wish to tell it, we need words 
that will tell indefinitely how many, — words that will show 
whether the number is large or small. 

6. Actions and Qualities Modified — Adverbs and 
Adverbial Phrases 

It often becomes necessary to tell when a thing happened, 
or zvhere it happened; how it was done, or why it was done. 
Sometimes, too, we wish to tell how much of the quality a 
thing has, or just how it applies. 

This may be done by single words, or by groups of words. 

7. Ownership, Authorship, Origin, Fitness, etc. — Possessive 
Case and Adjective Phrase 

Sometimes we wish to tell who ozvns a thing, who or what 
produced it, or to what it is adapted. For this purpose, we 
sometimes employ words of a peculiar form; and at other 
times, groups of words. 

8. Describing Objects by Referring Them to a Class — Apposition, 
and Nouns in the Predicate 

Sometimes we describe an object, not by telling its qual- 
ities directly, but by saying that it is one of a class of things 



SYNOPTICAL REVIEW 207 

whose qualities are well known. We may state positively that 
it belongs to the class ; or we may mention the fact incidentally, 
as a thing already known. 

9. Assuming Action — Participles 

Sometimes we wish merely to attribute an action to an ob- 
ject, without stating positively that the person or thing either 
performs the act or receives it. This calls for a class of words 
especially adapted to such a use. 

10. Relation — Prepositions and Conjunctions 

We also need to show the relation of objects, qualities, ac- 
tions, and thoughts, to one another; so we have a set of words 
for this purpose. 

11. Emotions — Interjections 

Sometimes a person's feelings are so deep, so sudden, or 
of such a nature that they cannot be expressed by ordinary 
forms of speech. This leads to the use of a set of words that 
express emotion, but no complete thought. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How do we distinguish objects? 

2. How do we distinguish a particular person or place 
from all others ? 

3. -How do we distinguish a class of persons or things 
from those that do not belong to that class ? 

4. How do we distinguish males from females ? 

5. How do we distinguish males and females from things 
that have no sex ? 

6. How do we distinguish one from more than one ? 

7. What do we call words that are used to name collec- 
tions of objects? 

8. What do we call words used to name qualities ? 

9. What do we call words that merely denote quality with- 
out naming it? 



208 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

10. What do we call those words that tell what ones, which 
ones, or how many? 

11. Give examples of words that tell definitely how many. 
Of those that tell indefinitely how many. Of those that tell 
what ones or which ones without telling how many. 

12. What words denote one but no definite one? 

13. When should a be used in preference to an? 

14. What word is employed to show that some definite one 
is meant? 

15. For what different purposes, then, do we need limiting 
adjectives? 

16. What does it often become necessary to tell in regard 
to actions? 

17. Show by example how single words are employed to 
tell the time of an action. The place. The manner. The pur- 
pose. The cause. 

18. Show by examples how phrases are used for all these 
purposes. 

19. For what different purposes is the possessive case used? 

20. Give examples. 

21. Show by examples how the adjective phrase may be 
used for the same purposes. 

22. When do we use a noun in the predicate? 

23. When do we use a noun in apposition? 

24. Give examples of both. 

25. Give sentences that predicate identity. 

26. Give sentences in which identity is assumed. 

27. Why do we need participles ? 

28. Give examples of their use. 

29. Give sentences in which participles are used to name 
action. 

30. Give sentences in which a peculiar form of the verb is 
used to name action. 



synoptical revif:w 209 

31. What do we call participles and infinitives when they 
are used to name action ? 

32. What two classes of words are used merely to show 
relation? 

33. Show by examples how a preposition may be used to 
show the relation between two objects. Between an object and 
an action. Between two actions. 

34. How do we show that two or more terms are equal in 
rank, and alike in relation? 

35. What name do we give to a group consisting of two 
coordinate terms? Of three or more? 

36. Give sentences that have a couplet or series of subjects. 
Predicates. Objects. Adjectives. Adverbs. 

37. Give examples of coordinate phrases. Coordinate 
clauses. 

38. What words are most commonly used as coordinate 
conjunctions? 

39. In what respect are these words alike in their use? 

40. In addition to this general use, what peculiar relation 
of thoughts does each suggest? 

41. Why do we need interjections? 

42. Give examples of their use. 



LESSON CXXXVIII 

Adverbial Clauses 

1. Men make hay in fair weather. 

2. Men make hay when the sun shines. 

In the first sentence above, in fair weather is added to the 
verb make to tell when the hay is made. It therefore does the 
work of an adverb, and since it consists of a group of words, 
it is called an adverbial phrase. 

14 



210 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

110. In the second sentence, when the sun shines is added 
to the verb make to tell when the act of making was per- 
formed. It must therefore do the work of an adverb. It con- 
sists of a group of words; but unlike the adverbial phrase, 
it has a subject and a predicate; so we call it an adverbial 
clause. 

In an adverbial clause, the subject and predicate, and all 
the words that limit them, are used in the same relations to one 
another as they are in an ordinary simple sentence ; but in ad- 
dition to these parts, every adverbial clause must have a word 
to show its relation as a whole to other parts of the sentence. 
This word is called a connective, or introductory word. 

It will be remembered that principal clauses are sometimes 
joined in one sentence, with a connecting word between them 
to show that they are equal, or coordinate, in rank. This con- 
necting word, since it shows the clauses to be coordinate in 
rank, is called a coordinate conjunction. 

111. But the adverbial clause is not equal in rank with the 
principal clause, — is not coordinate, — but is used merely as 
an adverb; that is, to modify a word in the principal clause. 
It is of a lower rank than the principal clause, or the word 
which it limits, — and since sub means under, or lower, and 
since ord suggests order, or rank, we call such a clause a sub- 
ordinate clause; the word that introduces it, and shows it 
to be subordinate, we call a subordinate conjunction. 

In describing a subordinate clause, we first notice its use as 
a whole, and afterwards take up its parts, beginning with its 
introductory word, subject, and predicate. 

EXERCISE 

Point out each subordinate clause, its connective, and what 
the clause tells : — 

1. We wept while we listened. 

2. He came when darkness curtained the hills. 

3. When the sun rose, we pursued our journey. 



ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 211 

4. Full of wrath was Hiawatha when he came into the village. 

5. When they ceased, a sudden darkness fell, and filled the silent 
wigwam. 

6. When he awoke, it. was already night. 

Remark. — In sentence 2, darkness is said to curtain the 
hills because it hides them from view, as curtains conceal the 
objects that are behind them. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy the sentences above. 

2. Inclose the subordinate clause in marks of parenthesis 
to suggest that it works as a unit in the sentence — does just 
one thing, and does that one thing as a whole. 

3. Draw one line under the subordinate conjunction, and 
two lines under the word which the clause limits. 



LESSON CXXXIX 

Adverbial Clauses 

Adverbial clauses, like other adverbial elements, are used 
to tell, not only when, but also where, why, how, for what pur- 
pose, and from what cause, actions take place. All these uses 
will be shown in the lessons that follow. 

Punctuation. — In some of the examples of this lesson, 
and in several of the preceding lessons, the adverbial clause 
comes before the word it limits. When it is so arranged, it is 
said to be transposed, and should be set off by the comma, as 
seen in the examples referred to. 

EXERCISE 

What do the adverbial clauses tell in these sentences : — 

1/ When the world is dark with tempests, thou lookest in thy beauty 
from the clouds. 



212 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

2. Three friends, the guests of summer time, pitched their white 
tents where sea winds blew. 

— Whit tier. 

3. When I blow my breath about me, 

When I breathe upon the landscape, 
Flowers spring up o'er all the meadows, 
Singing, onward rush the rivers. 

— Longfellow. 

4. I watched him as he went. 

5. I calmly stand and wait till the hinges turn for me. 

6. The battle was lost before reenforcements arrived. 

SEAT WORK 

Do with the sentences above as directed in the seat work 
of the preceding lesson. 



LESSON CXL 

Adverbial Clauses 

Point out the adverbial clauses and what they tell : — 

1. Heavily sank he, as a stone sinks. 

2. Two angels passed o'er our village as the morning broke. 

3. Pleasant it is to roam about the lettered world as the traveler 
roams. 

4. And bright where summer breezes break, 
The green wheat crinkles like a lake. 

— Trowbridge. 

5. A thousand recollections weave their bright hues into woof, 
As I listen to the patter of the soft rain on the roof. 

6. As they bend to the soft winds, the sun looks in, and sheds a 
blessing on the scene. 

Remarks. — In sentences 1 and 3, the subordinate clause 
tells the manner of the action. 

In the other sentences it denotes time, place, or circum- 
stance. 



ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 213 

112. In sentence 1, as a stone sinks tells by comparison 
how he sinks. The sinking of a person is compared to the 
sinking of a stone. This is called a figure of simile. 

In sentence 4, bright is an adjective; it describes the ap- 
pearance of the wheat as it crinkles. Notice the beautiful 
simile in this sentence. 

In sentence 5, our life is compared to a web of cloth. The 
warp must be time, or the regular train of acts and events in 
life, and into this, memory is represented as weaving recollec- 
tions of particularly pleasant occurrences, just as the weaver 
interlaces the woof [filling'] with the warp; and as the woof 
hides the warp, and gives color and general appearance to the 
cloth, so these pleasant recollections are uppermost in our 
memory, and give character to all our past life. 

SEAT WORK 

Do with the sentences above as directed in the seat work 
of Lesson 138. 



LESSON CXLI 

Adverbial Clauses 

Point out the principal and the subordinate clauses and 
connectives : — 

1. When she awoke from the trance, she beheld a multitude 
near her. 

2. Flowers peep from the ground where'er I pass. 

3. We paused at last where home-bound cows 

Brought down the pasture's treasure, 
And in the barn the rhythmic flails 
Beat out a harvest measure. 

— Whittier. 

4. When the repast was ended, they arose and went into the 
garden. 



214 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

5. 'Tis a dangerous adventure ; l)ut as he puts his feet and hands 
into those gains, and draws himself carefully up to his full length, he 
finds himself a foot above every name chronicled in that mighty wall. 

6. Yes, I will spend the livelong day 
With nature in this month of May; 
And sit beneath the trees and share 

My bread with birds whose homes are there; 
While cows lie down to eat, and sheep 
Stand to their necks in grass so deep ; 
While birds do sing with all their might, 
As though they felt the earth in flight. 

KINDS OF SENTENCES 

113. A sentence made up of coordinate clauses is called 
a compound sentence. 

A sentence that has one principal clause, and one or more 
subordinate clauses, is called a complex sentence. 

A sentence made up of two or more principal clauses, with 
one or more subordinate clauses, is both compound and com- 
plex. Sentence 5 of this lesson affords an example. Adverbial 
clauses may be coordinate with one another, and at the same 
time be subordinate to the word they limit. See sentence 3. 

Remarks. — In sentence 2, do the flowers literally peep ? 
What is it to peep ? Why are the flowers said to peep ? 

In sentence 3, what is meant by the pasture's treasure? 
Why is it called the pasture's treasure, since the cows produce 
it ? Why are the flails said to be rhythmic ? What is meant b^ 
a harvest measure ? 

114. In this case the name of the thing is filled by the 
grain is put for the grain itself. This is called a figure of 
metonymy; that is, the transfer of a name from the real 
thing to another thing closely associated with it. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy two sentences containing adverbial 
clauses denoting time, two denoting manner, and two place. 

2. Mark these sentences as you did in Lesson 138. 



ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 215 

LESSON CXLII 

Adverbial Clauses 

Point out the adverbial clauses, what each one tells, and 
note carefully their punctuation or lack of it: — 

1. Between the dark and the daylight, 

When the night is beginning to lower, 
Comes a pause in the day's occupations. 

— Longfellow. 

2. As I look and listen, the sadness wears away. 

3. But ere he touched the latchet, from within a whisper came. 

4. The cheerful rivulet sang and gossiped as it hastened oceanward. 

5. I watch the mowers as they go 

Through the tall grass, a white-sleeved row. 

— Trowbridge. 

6. I saw him when he fell. 

7. The silver moon at midnight cold and still, 
Looks, sad and silent, o'er yon western hill. 

8. Where the wave is tinged with red, 

And the russet sea leaves grow, 
Mariners, with prudent tread, 
Shun the shelving reefs below. 

— John Leyden. 

Remarks. — In sentence 4, how could the rivulet sing? 
How could it gossip? Perhaps some of the noises made by 
the rivulet in its flowing, reminded the poet of the chattering 
of people who gossip. 

In sentence 3, within seems to be a noun. Perhaps, how- 
ever, from within would better be regarded as an adverb rep- 
resenting a phrase whose noun is understood. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy three sentences containing transposed 
adverbial clauses; three containing adverbial clauses that are 
not set off, because closely connected in thought; and three 



216 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

that contain adverbial clauses so slightly connected in thought 
as to be set off by the comma. 

2. Underline neatly the adverbial clauses. 



LESSON CXLIII 

Adverbial Clauses 

Point out the adverbial clauses, and their connectives, and 
explain their punctuation or absence of it : — ■ 

1. We do not understand some persons because we are not ac- 
quainted with them. 

2. As retreat was impossible, Colter turned the head of the canoe. 

3. A poet, as he paces to and fro, murmurs his sounding lines. 

4. Thou comest not when violets lean 

O'er wandering brooks, and springs unseen, 
Or columbines, in purple dressed, 
Nod o'er the ground-bird's nest. 



• Bryant. 



5. The castle bell, with backward clang, 
Sent forth the larum peal ; 
Was frequent heard the heavy jar, 
Where massy stone and iron bar 
Were piled on echoing keep and tower. 



— Scott. 



Remark. — In sentence 2, what is meant by the head of 
the canoe? Why is this part called the head? — Animals al- 
ways move with the head forward, and this may be the reason 
why the part of the boat that goes forward is called the head. 

Punctuation. — We have already seen that transposed 
adverbial clauses are set off by the comma. Those that are 
not transposed, are also set off when not very closely con- 
nected in sense with the word they limit, but when closely 
connected, they are not set off. These latter clauses corre- 
spond, in their relation, to restrictive participial phrases ; while 



ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 217 

those that are not closely related, correspond to phrases that 
are not restrictive. 

Review Lesson 104. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy sentences 4 and 5 above. 

2. Underline the principal clauses, inclose the subordinate 
clauses in marks of parenthesis, and draw a wavy line under 
the subordinate connectives. 



LESSON CXLIV 

Adverbial Clauses 

Point out what each adverbial clause tells, and explain its 
punctuation : — 

1. For them the early violet no more 

Open upon thy bank, nor, for their eyes, 
Glitter the crimson pictures of the clouds 
Upon thy bosom when the sun goes down. 

— Bryant. 

2. But when the hymn was sung, and the daily lesson completed, 
Swiftly they hurried away to the forge of Basil the blacksmith. 

— Evangeline. 

3. Wild' with the winds of September, 
Wrestled the trees of the forest, as Jacob of old with the angel. 

— Evangeline. 

4. And southerly, when the tide is down, 
'Twixt white sea waves and sand hills brown, 
The beach birds dance and the gray gulls wheel 
Over a floor of burnished steel. 

— Whittier. 

Remarks. — In sentence 2, but shows the relation of this 
sentence to one that has gone before. 

In sentence 3, the trees are said to wrestle with the wind 



218 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

because the wind seems to be trying to throw them down, and 
they writhe about as men do in wrestling. 

In sentence 4, the " floor of burnished steel " is the surface 
of the water. It is called a " floor " because the birds as they 
dart about so rapidly close to its surface, remind the poet of 
people dancing on a floor. It is called a floor of " burnished 
steel " because it glistens like burnished steel. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy sentences 1 and 4. 

2. Draw a straight line under the principal clauses, and a 
wavy line under the coordinate connectives. 

3. Inclose the subordinate clauses in marks of parenthesis. 

LESSON CXLV 

Adverbial Clauses 

Point out what verb each adverbial clause limits, and what 
each clause tells about the action of the verb : — 

1. When beechen buds begin to swell, 

And woods the bluebird's warble know, 
The yellow violet's modest bell 

Peeps from the last year's leaves below. 

— Bryant, 

2. When the showering vapors gather 

Over all the starry spheres, 
And the melancholy darkness 

Gently weeps in rainy tears, 
'Tis a joy to press the pillow 

Of the cottage chamber bed, 
And listen to the patter 

Of the soft rain overhead. 

— Coates Kinney. 

3. But their voices sank yet lower, sank to husky tones of fear. 
As they spake of present tokens of the powers of evil near. 

— Whittier. 



ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 219 

Remarks. — In sentence 1, from below may be regarded 
as a preposition, showing the relation of the leaves to the peep- 
ing of the violet's modest bell. 

In sentence 3, near is an adjective, added to evil to show 
its condition in regard to proximity. It represents the ad- 
jective phrase near them. 

In sentence 2, the darkness is said to be melancholy; then, 
to carry out the figure, it is said to weep, the raindrops being 
taken for tears. 

SEAT WORK 

Write five sentences of your own containing various kinds 
of adverbial clauses, and indicate what each clause tells. 

LESSON CXLVI 

Adverbial Clauses 

Point out all the principal and subordinate clauses, and tell 
how they are connected : — 

1. Suddenly, 
As on his words entrancedly they hung, 
The crowd divided, and among them stood 

Jairus the ruler. 

— Willis. 

2. The melody of praise is the atmosphere of heaven; and when 
heaven comes in touch with the earth, there is music and song, — 
" thanksgiving, and the voice of melody." — Mrs. E. G. White. 

3. And when the herbs 
Of summer drooped beneath the midday sun, 
She sat within the shade of a great rock, 
Dreamily listening to the streamlet's song. 

— Bryant. 

4. Lies a calm along the deep, 

Like a mirror sleeps the ocean, 
And the anxious steersman sees 
Round him neither stir nor motion. 

— Goethe. 



220 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

Remark. — In sentence 1, the people " hung " on his words ; 
i. e., they let none escape them, but listened with eagerness, 
trying to remember all they heard. 

SEAT WORK 

Study the next lesson, and write the analysis of the fourth 
sentence. 

LESSON CXLVII 

Adverbial Clauses 

Study carefully the thought of these examples till you are 
sure you understand every expression : — 

1. The arrowy beam 

Of moonlight, slanting to the marble floor, 
Lay like a spell of silence in the rooms, 
As Jairus led them on. 

—Willis. 

2. I hear the beat 

Of their pinions fleet, 
As from the land of snow and sleet, 
They seek a southern lea. 

— Longfellow. 

3. Only the long waves, as they broke 
In ripples on the pebbly beach, 
Interrupted the old man's speech. 

4. Strange domes and towers 

Rose up where sty or corncrib stood, 
Or garden wall, or belt of wood. 

— Snow-Bound. 

5. There is no glory in star or blossom 

Till looked upon by a loving eye; 
There is no fragrance in April breezes 
Till breathed with joy as they wander by. 

— Bryant. 

Remark. — In sentence 4, stood has four subjects, — sty, 
corncrib, zvall, and belt. 



ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 221 

SEAT WORK 

Write in your own words the meaning of the second and 
fifth stanzas above. 



LESSON CXLVIII 

Adverbial Clauses 

Classify each sentence as simple, compound, or complex, 
or as both compound and complex : — 

1. I wield the flail of the lashing hail, 

And whiten the green plains under; 
And then, again, I dissolve it in rain, 
And laugh as I pass in thunder. 

— Shelley. 

2. We wandered where the sun never shines. 

3. My friend came yesterday, and returned today. 

4. This is the unkindest cut of all. 

5. Yours was a life of suffering, mine, of exquisite delight. 

6. I am going, O my people, 

On a long and distant journey. 

— Hiawatha. 

7. Down the coast of Norway, 
Like a flock of sea gulls, 
Sailed the fleet of Olaf 
Through the Danish Sound. 

— Longfellow. 

QUESTIONS AND REQUIREMENTS 

1. In what are the adverbial word, phrase, and clause 
alike ? 

2. Give an example of a word, phrase, and clause, each 
used to tell when something happened. 

3. In what respect are the adverbial phrase and clause 
alike ? 

4. In what respect are they unlike? 

5. How do they differ in form? 



222 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

6. In analyzing an adverbial clause, what should first be 
noticed? 

7. What should next receive attention? 

8. In what respects are an adverbial clause and a principal 
clause alike? 

9. In what do they differ? 

10. What must be prefixed to a clause before it can be used 
as an adverb? 

11. Give principal clauses, and change them to adverbial 
clauses. 

12. Give adverbial clauses, and change them to principal 
clauses. 

13. When should an adverbial clause be set off by the 
comma ? 

14. When is a sentence said to be compound? When 
complex ? 

SEAT WORK 
Write careful answers to the questions and requirements 
above. Always use complete sentences in your answers. 



LESSON CXLIX 

Adjective Clauses 

1. We respect an industrious man. 

2. We respect a man of industry. 

3. We respect a man who is industrious. 

In the first sentence, we describe the man by the use of the 
word industrious, which assumes a quality of him. In the 
second sentence, we describe him by the phrase of industry, 
which means the same as industrious. In the third sentence, 
we bring out the same thought by the use of the clause who 
is industrious. 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 223 

" Industrious " is an adjective; " of industry " is an ad- 
jective phrase; " who is industrious " is an adjective clause. 
The word, the phrase, and the clause all describe the man by 
attributing to him the quality of industry. The word and the 
phrase assume the quality ; the clause predicates it, but repre- 
sents it as a subordinate thought, secondary in importance to 
the thought predicated in the principal clause. 

115. The adjective clause is subordinate to a noun or 
pronoun just as the adverbial clause is to a verb. As with the 
adverbial, so with the adjective clause; we first speak of its 
use as a whole, then of its introductory or relation word, its 
subject, predicate, etc. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the adjective clause, and tell what it describes : — 

1. Happy is the man that findeth wisdom. 

2. We see not the hand which is guiding us. 

3. God honors the man who walks uprightly. 

4. Mr. Austin has a clock that marks the changes of the moon. 

5. My friend sailed on the ship that left port yesterday. 

6. The poet Bryant was a man who loved the forest. 

7. He that winneth souls is wise. 

Remarks. — In sentence 2, God's providence is called a 
" hand ". because he guides us by it as we lead the weak by the 
hand. In sentence 3, a man's course of conduct in life is com- 
pared to walking. One who is in the full vigor of health, and 
has a clear conscience, walks uprightly ; so one who obeys God 
in all things is morally healthy and vigorous, is never turned 
aside by temptation, and never yields to wrong; he is there- 
fore said to walk uprightly. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy the sentences above, and write three more con- 
taining adjective clauses. 

2. In each sentence inclose the adjective clause in marks 



224 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

of parenthesis to show that the clause as a whole does but one 
thing in the sentence — describes. 

3. Underline the word described by the adjective clause. 

4. Try changing some of the clauses into phrases or simple 
adjectives. 

LESSON CL 

The Relative Pronoun as Subject 

116. A pronoun that shows a clause to be in a subordinate 
relation to some noun, is called a relative pronoun. 

117. The noun which the pronoun represents is called its 
antecedent; that is, that which goes before. It is so called 
because the noun referred to by the relative pronoun usually 
goes before the pronoun. 

118. A pronoun always means the same person or thing 
as its antecedent, and therefore must have the same person, 
number, and gender ; but it may represent that person or thing 
in a different relation, and hence is not necessarily put in the 
same case. The antecedent itself may be a personal pronoun. 

119. Punctuation. — When the adjective clause is not re- 
strictive, it must be set off by the comma, the same as par- 
ticipial phrases and adverbial clauses which are not restrictive. 

EXERCISE 

Notice the difference between the restrictive and nonrestric- 
tive clauses in this lesson. 

1. Does the adjective clause in the first sentence tell what 
Jane or which Jane is meant? 

2. In the fifth sentence, does the adjective clause tell what 
Voltaire is meant? 

3. In the sixth sentence, does the adjective clause tell which 
man or what particular kind of man is meant? 

4. In the third sentence, does the adjective clause tell what 
particular kind of persons have great influence in society? 



THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AS SUBJECT 225 

5. Which of these clauses, then, are restrictive, and which 
are not? 

EXAMPLES 

1. The child was much attached to Jane, who loved her dearly. 

2. Death is the season that tries our affections. 

3. Those who are wealthy frequently have great influence in society. 

4. The eye, which sees all things, sees not itself. 

5. Voltaire, who saw him, speaks repeatedly of his majestic ap- 
pearance. 

6. The man who trusts in God is blessed. 

7. Oh, a dainty plant is the ivy green, 
That creepeth o'er ruins old. 

— Dickens. 

8. The greatest want of the world is the want of men, — men who 
will not be bought or sold; men who in their inmost souls are true 
and honest ; men who do not fear to call sin by its right name ; men 
whose conscience is as true to duty as the needle to the pole ; men 
who will stand for the right though the heavens fall. — Mrs. E. G. 
White. 

SEAT WORK 

120. Observe that besides showing that its clause is sub- 
ordinate, the relative pronoun is always a part of the adjec- 
tive clause with which it has to do. 

1. Tell in writing what part of the clause each pronoun is 
in the sentences above. 

2. Tell in what person, number, gender, and case each rela- 
tive pronoun is by writing it out neatly. 

LESSON CLI 

The Relative Pronoun as Object 

What part of the adjective clause is each relative pronoun? 

1. Was it the chime of a tiny bell 

That came so sweet to my dreaming ear, 
Like the silvery tones of a fairy's shell, 
That he winds on the beach, so mellow and clear? 

— John Pierpont. 
15 



226 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

2. The hills which our feet climbed in childhood are dear to us. 

3. The evil that men do lives after them. 

4. He that gathereth in summer is a wise son. 

5. He liveth long who liveth well. 

6. The book of poems which I lent you was a present. 

7. He prayeth best who leaves unguessed 
The mystery of another's breast. 

8. He is a free man whom the truth makes free. 

EXERCISE 

Parse each relative pronoun, like the models below. 

MODELS FOR PARSING THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 

We mourn for the heroes who fell. 

Who is a relative pronoun. As a relative, it shows its 
clause to be in a subordinate relation to the noun heroes. As 
a pronoun, it is third per., plu. num., masc. gen., because it 
means the same as heroes. It is subject of the clause, and is 
therefore put in the nominative case. 

/ found the pen which you lost. 

Which is a relative pronoun. As a relative, it shows its 
clause to be in a subordinate relation to the noun pen. As a 
pronoun, it is third per., sing, num., neu. gen., because it means 
the same as pen. It is object of the verb lost, and is therefore 
put in the objective case. 

He that zvalketh uprightly walketh surely. 

That is a relative pronoun. As a relative, it shows its 
clause to be in a subordinate relation to the pronoun he. As 
a pronoun, it is third per., sing, num., masc. gen., because it 
means the same as he. It is subject of the clause, and is there- 
fore put in the nominative case. 

Remarks. — In sentence 4, middle life is compared to sum- 
mer. In summer, everything is favorable to the raising of 
grains and fruits; and he who improves the opportunity and 
gathers in an abundant store, will not want when winter comes. 



THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AS OBJECT 227 

So middle life, when all the powers are vigorous and active, is 
a favorable time for acquiring knowledge and wealth ; so, too, 
we should improve the present life in laying up treasure in 
heaven. 

Sentence 5 contains a significant figure. He lives long who 
lives well, because he accomplishes more, even in a few years, 
than others do in a long life. 

The meaning of sentence 7 may seem at first a little ob- 
scure. To be prying into the secret thoughts and feelings of 
others is displeasing to God, and hinders communication with 
him. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy five sentences, each containing a relative 
pronoun as subject, and five with a relative pronoun as object. 

2. Inclose the adjective clause in marks of parenthesis, and 
underline the relative pronoun and its antecedent. 

3. Which of the two latter falls within the parenthesis, and 
which without? 

4. Copy and fill the blanks with the proper form of mas- 
culine relative pronoun, noting carefully its relation to the pred- 
icate of the relative clause : — • 

1. That is the man everybody thinks will be our next president. 

2. Give a copy to every one you think it will benefit. 

3. Mr. Brown is a man I have every reason to believe we can 

trust. 

4. He is the very one we expected would not fail us. 

5. Send it to ever you think will make the best use of it. 

6. She is a girl I have no hesitation in saying we can de- 
pend upon. 

7. He was the boy no one expected to amount to much. 

8. There is a man I believe will be reliable. 

9. I gave it to Mr. Johnson, I have never met before, but 

is said to be trustworthy. 



228 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CLII 

Relative Pronoun in the Possessive Case 

We have seen that the relative pronoun may be used as 
subject or as object of the verb in its own clause. Like the 
personal pronoun, it may also be used to denote possession. 

EXERCISE 

Tell the use of each relative pronoun below, and point out 
its antecedent : — 

1. I venerate the man whose heart is warm. 

2. They came to the chief man of the island, whose name was 
Publius. 

3. Contemplate him whose yoke is easy, and whose burden is light. 

4. None knew the burden that she bore. 

5. This plain was dotted with lovely lakes, whose waters shone in 
the slanting rays of the declining sun. 

6. Under the boughs of Wachita willows, that grew by the margin, 
Safely their boat was moored; and scattered about on the 

greensward, 
Tired with their midnight toil, the weary travelers slumbered. 

Remarks. — Sentence i. — The man has a warm heart who 
has kind and sympathetic feelings. Tender plants and flowers 
shrink and die in the cold, but give them warmth, and they 
thrive ; so selfishness and unkindness blight the tender buds of 
affection and hope in the human heart. But under the genial 
influence of kindness and sympathy they unfold into purity, 
beauty, and usefulness. 

Sentence j. — The service which Christ requires of us is 
here compared to the service that kind men require of beasts 
of burden. The yoke is so made that they can work easily in 
it, and they are not overloaded; so the service required of us 
is never hard when we perform it willingly. 



RELATIVE PRONOUN IN THE POSSESSIVE CASE 229 

SEAT WORK 

Write the parsing of relative pronouns in this lesson, and 
of two in each of the two preceding lessons. Tell how the 
pronoun is used in its own clause, and give its person, number, 
gender, and case, and point out its antecedent. 



LESSON CLIII 

Relative Pronoun as Object of a Preposition 

Like the noun, a relative pronoun may be object of a prepo- 
sition as well as object of a verb. 

EXERCISE 

Determine the use of the relative pronouns in the examples 

below : — 

1. The streams at which our young lips drank are sweet. 

2. Every good man loves the country in which he was born. 

3. The flowers that bloom in early spring are generally small and 
delicate. 

4. It is a maxim whose truth many have realized. 

5. It is a maxim the truth of which many have realized. 

6. One long bar of purple cloud, on which the evening star shone 
like a jewel on a scimitar, held the sky's golden gateway. 

7. The valley stream is frozen, 

The hills are cold and bare, 
And the wild white bees of winter 
Swarm in the darkened air. 

— Bayard Taylor. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Sentence i 

1. Streams is the subject, and are szveet is the predicate. 

2. At which our young lips drank tells what streams are 
meant. 



230 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

3. Lips is the subject of the clause, and drank is the pred- 
icate. 

4. At which, meaning at the streams, tells where our lips 
drank. 

5. Which alludes to the streams to show what this clause 
describes. 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

Which is a relative pronoun. As a relative, it shows its 
clause to be in a subordinate relation to the noun streams. As 
a pronoun, it is in the third person, plural number, neuter 
gender, because it means the same as streams. It is object of 
the preposition at, and is therefore put in the objective case. 

Remarks. — In sentence 1, the streams are said to be sweet 
to our young lips because in youth we have a keener relish than 
in after years ; but the real meaning is that, as we have a 
keener relish for food, so we have a livelier appreciation of all 
the enjoyments of life, hence they seem dearer to us. 

Sentence 6 contains two beautiful figures. In the first, it is 
clearly stated that the star on the cloud shines like a jewel 
on a scimitar. This is called a simile. In the second, the 
comparison is not stated, but merely implied. That part of the 
sky where the sun has just gone out of sight is called heaven's 
gateway, because the sun has seemed to go out at it, as one 
would go out through a gateway. It is called golden, because 
it is bright and yellow like gold. Such a figure is called a 
metaphor. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write the analysis of sentences 6 and 7, telling the kind 
of sentence, and describing the use of all the clauses and prep- 
ositional phrases. 

2. Parse the relatives in sentences 3, 4, and 5. 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 231 

LESSON CLIV 

Adjective Clauses 

121. Since the antecedent of a relative pronoun is always 
a noun or a pronoun, it is evident that a relative clause does 
the work of an adjective, and is therefore called an ad- 
jective clause. When we speak of the structure of such a 
clause, we call it a relative clause; when we speak of its use, 
we call it an adjective clause. 

EXERCISE 

Determine the structure and the use of each subordinate 
clause : — 

1. Before me spreads the lake, 

Whose long and solemn-sounding waves 
Against the sunset break. 

2. The laws which govern the world are universal. 

3. The laws by which the world is governed are universal. 

4. He it was whose hand in autumn 
Painted all the trees with scarlet, 
Stained the leaves with red and yellow; 
He it was who sent the snowflakes, 
Sifting, hissing through the forest, 
Froze the ponds, the lakes, the rivers, 
Drove the loon and sea gull southward, 
Drove the cormorant and curlew 

To their nests of sedge and sea tang 
In the realms of Shawondasee. 

— Longfellow. 

SEAT WORK 

Inclose in marks of parenthesis the subordinate clauses, 
and describe in writing the structure and the use of each : — 

1. Within, in the wide old kitchen, 
The old folks sit in the sun, 
That creeps through the sheltering woodbine, 
Till the day is almost done. 



232 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

2. The prince that wanteth understanding is also a great oppressor. 

3. She is a tree of life to them that lay hold upon her, and happy 
is every one that retaineth her. 

4. O mountain friends! with mine 
Your solemn spirit blends. 

5. He whose presence fills 
With light the space of these hills 
No evil to his creatures wills. 

Remarks. — Sentence 3 speaks of wisdom as a tree of life. 
By eating of the tree of life, men may perpetuate their ex- 
istence forever ; so by following the dictates of true wisdom 
they may secure eternal life, for it will make them wise unto 
salvation. Therefore, wisdom is said to be a tree of life to 
them that lay hold upon her. 



LESSON CLV 

Adjective Clauses 

Point out the structure and the use of the subordinate 



clauses : 



1. Late, with the rising moon, returned the wains from the marshes, 
Laden with briny hay, that filled the air with its odor; 
Cheerily neighed the steeds, with dew on their manes and their 

fetlocks, 
While aloft on their shoulders the wooden and ponderous 

saddles, 
Painted with brilliant dyes, and adorned with tassels of crimson, 
Nodded in bright array, like hollyhocks heavy with blossoms. 

— Longfellow. 

2. Yet, 'twas a pleasant toil to trace and beat 

Among the glowing trees this winding way, 
While the sweet autumn sunshine, doubly sweet, 

Flushed with the ruddy foliage, round us lay, 
As if some gorgeous cloud of morning stood 
In glory mid the arches of the wood. 

Bryant. 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 233 

3. Under a towering oak, that stood in the midst of the village, 
Knelt the Black Robe chief with his children. 

— Longfellow. 

Remarks. — In sentence 1, while is a coordinate conjunc- 
tion, as may be proved by putting and in its place. It is slightly 
different in meaning from and, but not more so than yet. It 
is in some respects like nor; for while nor is exactly equivalent 
to and and the negative adverb not, while seems to be equiva- 
lent to and and an adverbial phrase denoting simultaneous 
time. "And at the same time" might take the place of while 
in sentence 1. While, when used in this way, seems also to 
imply that the clause following it, although coordinate with 
the one before it, is slightly secondary to it in importance. 

In sentence 2, at the beginning of the fifth line, are two 
conjunctions — as and if. As is all that remains of a clause 
whose predicate is modified by the clause introduced by if. 
Supplying the ellipsis, it would read, " As it would lie if some 
gorgeous cloud/' etc. For the sake of brevity, however, it is 
as well, after having explained as above, to parse as if together 
as a conjunction introducing the clause that follows. 

SEAT WORK 

Study the thought of the following selections, and point 
out the principal and the subordinate clauses by copying each 
clause complete, inclosing it in quotation marks. Use this 
form: — • 

1. The principal clause is: 
The subordinate clause is: 
This clause is used to 



1. Sometimes along the wheel-deep sand 
A one-horse wagon slowly crawled, 
Deep laden with a youthful band, 
Whose look some homestead old recalled. 

— Whit tier. 



234 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

2. Slowly lifting the horn that hung at his side, and expanding 
Fully his broad, deep chest, he blew a blast, that resounded 
Wildly and sweet and far, through the still, damp air of the 

evening. 

— Longfellow. 

3. Long and thin and gray were the locks that shaded his temples. 

4. He that only rules by terror 
Doeth grievous wrong. 

— ■ Tennyson. 

5. The woodlands wore a gloomy green, 

The tawny stubble clad the hill ; 

And August hung her smoky screen 

Above the valleys, hot and still. 

— Bayard Taylor. 



LESSON CLVI 

Adjective Clauses Introduced by When and Where 

1. / remember the day when I first left home. 

2. We passed the house where the murder was com' 
mitted. 

In sentence 1, when I first left home is added to the noun 
day to show what particular day is meant; it must therefore 
be an adjective clause. We may give further proof of its being 
an adjective clause by putting in its place an adjective phrase, 
or an adjective clause of the ordinary form. Thus: — 

1. I remember the day of my first leaving home. 

2. I remember the day on which I first left home. 

122. The substitution oi on which for when in no sense 
changes the meaning of the sentence, and the clause still de- 
scribes day. Either form of expression is correct, but when 
has the advantage of being briefer and less cumbersome to use. 
The word when shows that the clause is subordinate to day, 
and therefore does the work of a relative ; it is also an adverb 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 235 

modifying the verb left. For these two reasons we may prop- 
erly call it a relative adverb. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Repeat the subordinate clause found in the second sen- 
tence at the head of this lesson. 

2. For what purpose is it used ? 

3. Put in its place an adjective clause containing a relative 
pronoun. 

4. What relation is shown by the relative pronoun ? 

5. Then what relation is shown by the word where? 

6. What would be the use, or office, of the phrase in 
which? 

7. Then what two purposes are served by the word where, 
since it is equivalent to the phrase in zvhich? 

8. Are the words when and where commonly used as they 
are in these sentences ? 

9. Give sentences in which these words are used as con- 
junctions. 

10. Give sentences in which they are used as adverbs. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the relative adverbs, and tell what two offices they 
fill in the sentence : — 

1. The rootlets of the trees found the prison where she lay. 

2. We visited the place where the old chief was buried. 

3. We know not the time when he cometh. 

4. They emerged into broad lagoons where silvery sand bars lay 
in the stream. 

5. So, with aching limbs and head, 
Plod I to a quiet glade, 
Where a miniature cascade, 
Fashioned by some artist's cunning, 
Over shells and stones is running. 

— Goethe. 



236 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Write out the parsing of the relative adverbs or pronouns, 
like the model : — 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

I know the rock whence those waters flow. 

Whence is a relative adverb. 

As a relative, it shows its clause to be subordinate to the 
noun rock. 

As an adverb, it modifies the verb flow. 

1. They reached a spot where the narrow road descended to the 
river through deep and gloomy woods. 

2. There come moments in life when our feelings find expression 
both in smiles and in tears. 

3. In the leafy tree tops, where no fears intrude, merry birds are 
singing. 

4. Open now the crystal fountain 
Whence the healing waters flow. 

5. Toward the south end of the plateau are many shapeless ruins, 
that probably indicate the site of Herod's palace. 

6. The entire locality now presents a scene of indescribable deso- 
lation, and all who visit it are impressed with the mournful though 
magnificent outlook over the Dead Sea, and the picturesque, wild, and 
worn mountains of Moab and Edom beyond. 

— Land and Book. 

7. Birds destroy billions of insects which would otherwise turn 
this fair earth into a desert. 

8. Many thousands of ducks could be seen getting out of the water 
and the fields visible from the place where we were standing. 

Remarks. — In sentence 3, where no fears intrude is not 
used to tell what tree tops are meant, but rather to describe 
them as a safe retreat for the birds. 

In sentence 4, whence means from zvhich, and performs 
the same office as where. In sentence 6, though is a coordinate 
conjunction, nearly equivalent to yet. 



CLAUSES INTRODUCED BY RELATIVE ADVERBS 237 

LESSON CLVII 

Clauses Introduced by Relative Adverbs 

Study the thought of the sentences, and describe the work 
of the relative adverbs: — 

1. We are told of a home where sorrow never comes. 

2. In that hour when night is calmest, 
Sang he from the Hebrew psalmist. 

3. After a day of cloud and wind and rain, 
Sometimes the setting sun breaks out again, 

And, touching all the darksome woods with light, 
Smiles on the fields, until they laugh and sing; 
Then, like a ruby from the horizon's ring, 

Drops down into the night. 

— Longfellow. 

4. Pass on to homes where cheerful voices sound, and cheerful 
looks are cast. 

5. The marble flags of the corridor 
Through open windows meet the floor, 
And Moorish arches in darkness rise 
Against the gleam of the silver skies; 
Beyond, in flakes of starry light, 

A fountain prattles to the night, 
And dusky cypresses, withdrawn 
In silent conclave, stud the lawn ; 
"While mystic woodlands, more remote, 
In seas of airy silver float. 

— Bayard Taylor. 

MODEL FOR THE ANALYSIS OF A LONG SENTENCE 

Sentence J 

1. Sun is the subject. 

2. Breaks, smiles, and drops are the predicates. 

3. And shows that breaks and smiles are coordinate, but 
the connective is omitted between smiles and drops. 

4. Touching all the darksome Woods with light describes 
the sun by assuming an action of it. 



238 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

5. On the fields tells where the sun smiles, and until they 
laugh and sing shows the effect of that action. 

6. Then tells when the sun drops; like a ruby from the 
horizon's ring tells by comparison how it drops, down tells 
which way, and into the night, where. 

7. After a day of cloud and wind and rain tells when the 
sun does all these things. 

8. Sometimes shows that these actions do not commonly 
take place under such circumstances, but only occasionally. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentence 5, like the model above. 

LESSON CLVIIT 

Relative Adverbs 

Point out the relative adverbs, and so change them that 
you may use a relative pronoun without changing the sense. 
Which form of expression is more pleasing? 

1. Into the mirror of the brook, 

Where the vain bluebird trims his coat, 
Two tiny feathers fall and float. 

— /. T. Trowbridge. 

2. And he thought on the days that were long since by, 
When his limbs were strong, and his courage was high. 

— Scott. 

3. I love the garden wild and wide, 

Where oaks have plum trees by their side; 
Where woodbines and the twisting vine 
Clip round the pear tree and the pine. 

— Allan Ramsay. 

4. Alden went into the tranquil woods, where bluebirds and robins 
were building towns in the populous trees. 

— Longfellow/ s Miles Standish; 



RELATIVE ADVERBS 239 

5. Each heart has its haunted chamber, where the silent moon- 
light falls. 

— Longfellow 

Remarks. — In sentence 4, the adjective clause does not 
tell what woods are meant, but describes them by telling what 
was going on there. 

In sentence 5, the heart is taken to represent the feelings, 
and the thought seems to be that there are moments in every- 
one's life, when, by certain trains of thought, he is brought 
into a state of feeling similar to what one might be supposed 
to have in a haunted chamber where the silent moonlight 
falls. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write two sentences, one containing an adjective clause 
introduced by when, the o'ther by where. ' 

2. So change the clauses that you can use a relative 
pronoun. 

3. Write two sentences, one containing an adverbial clause 
introduced by when, the other by zvhere. 

4. Try changing the clauses so you can use a relative pro- 
noun. Can you do it? Why? 



LESSON CLIX 

Relative Pronoun Used Also as an Adjective 

1. / accept any terms which you propose. 

2. / accept whatever terms you propose. 

123. By comparing these sentences it will be seen that they 
are alike in meaning, and that whatever is exactly equivalent 
to the two words any and which. Now any is a limiting ad- 
jective, and which is a relative pronoun; and since whatever 



240 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

does the work of these two words, it is plain that it may be 
called both a limiting adjective and a relative pronoun. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the words that do this double work, and tell what 
two offices they fill : — ■ 

1. Take whatever course suits you. 

2. I obtained what help I needed. 

3. Whatever alms were received were given to the poor. 

4. Make what preparations are necessary. 

5. I sent what money I had. 

6. Bear patiently whatever misfortunes fall to your lot. 

7. I bought whatever provisions were needed. 

Remark. — In sentences 2, 4, and 7, the relative pronoun, 
in its adjective use, is nearly equivalent to the. In some sen- 
tences it is (in its adjective use) equivalent to any, and in oth- 
ers, to all. 

SEAT WORK 

Rewrite the sentences above by substituting separate words 
for the adjective-pronouns. Do you see any difference in the 
meaning? 



LESSON CLX 

Relative Pronoun Representing a Noun Understood 

1. / accept whatever terms you propose. 

2. / accept whatever . . . you propose. 

By comparing these sentences, it will be seen that in the 
second, the relative pronoun represents some noun (like terms) 
understood ; and that, in all respects, it sustains the same rela- 
tion to that noun understood that it would to the same noun 
expressed. 



RELATIVE PRONOUN FOR A NOUN UNDERSTOOD 241 

EXERCISE 

1. Study the following examples, and explain the use of 
the introductory word in each subordinate clause : — 

1. Buy what books you need. 

2. Buy what you need. 

3. Remember what hardships they endured. 

4. Practice what you teach. 

5. He fails in whatever enterprise he undertakes. 

6. Observe what you are taught. 

7. Whene'er a noble deed is wrought, 
Whene'er is spoken a noble thought, 
Our hearts, in glad surprise, 

To higher levels rise. 

— Longfellow. 

2. Parse the relative pronouns, like the model. 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

What is a relative pronoun, used also as an adjective. As 
a relative, it shows its clause to be in a subordinate relation to 
some noun understood. As a pronoun, it represents the noun 
understood, and must therefore have the same person, num- 
ber, and gender. It is object of the verb need, and is therefore 
put in the objective case. As an adjective, it is equivalent to 
the, and limits the noun understood. 

Remarks. — If a clause introduced by what has reference 
to the quantity of anything, such as, wheat, hay, flour, or 
sugar, what, in its adjective use, would be equivalent to all 
the; thus sentence 2 would read, " Buy all the flour that you 
need." 

In sentence 1, the real antecedent is books, for if expanded 
to its full meaning, the sentence would read thus: " Buy all 
the books that you need/' By throwing books into the rela- 
tive clause, and using what for the relative, we get the abridged 
form of sentence used above. 

16 



242 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

Who is sometimes used instead of whoever; as, " Who 
steals my purse, steals trash/' meaning " Whoever steals/ 3 or 
"Any person who steals/' etc. 

SEAT WORK 

Rewrite the following sentences by expanding the words 
that introduce the subordinate clauses. What effect does it 
have on the meaning? On the brevity and smoothness of ex- 
pression ? 

1. I sent what I had. 

2. Take whichever picture you prefer. 

3. Whoever commits sin dishonors God. 

4. He records whatever discoveries are made*. 

5. I saw what you had in your hand. 

6. Perform faithfully whatever duties are required of you. 

7. We obeyed whatever orders were given. 

8. We learned what you assigned us. 

9. I have a part of what you sent me. 



LESSON CLXI 

Review Exercise 

Write careful answers to the following questions and re- 
quirements : — 

1. When should adjective elements be set off by the 
comma ? 

2. How may we make a distinction between adjective 
phrases introduced by a preposition, and those consisting of 
an adjective with its modifiers, or of two or more adjectives 
joined coordinately ? 

124. The former class may be called simply adjective 
phrases, and the latter adjectival phrases. The former has 
a noun or pronoun as base, the latter an adjective. 



REVIEW EXERCISES 243 

3. Give an example of an adjective phrase that is set off 
by the comma because it is not restrictive. 

4. Give an example of an adjectival phrase that is set off 
for the same reason. 

5. Give a sentence containing an appositional phrase that 
should be set off by the comma. 

6. Give a sentence containing- a restrictive participial 
phrase. 

7. Give a sentence containing a participial phrase that is 
not restrictive. 

8. Give a sentence containing an adjective clause that is 
not restrictive. 

9. Give a sentence containing a restrictive adjective clause. 

10. Change your adjective clauses to participial phrases, 
and your participial phrases to adjective clauses, without 
changing the meaning of the sentences. 

11. When should adverbial clauses be set off by the comma ? 

12. Give an adverbial clause that should not be set off. 

13. Give an example of an adverbial clause that should be 
set off because not closely connected in sense with the word it 
modifies. 

LESSON CLXII 

Changing Constructions 

Change the form, as far as possible, of all the adjective 
elements in the following sentences, changing words to phrases, 
phrases to clauses, and vice versa : — 

1. But Time, the old sailor, tugged away at his oar and kept 
steadily on. 

2. There is no place which is too humble for the glories of heaven 
to shine in. 

3. His work, finished in good time, showed his diligence. 



244 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

4. In the production and preservation of order, all men recog- 
nize something that is sacred. 

5. Every teacher loves a pupil who is attentive and docile. 

6. And when the moonrise flooded coast and bay, 
He climbed the headland stretching far away. 

7. Now came the brilliant mornings, kindling all 
The woody hills with pinnacles of fire. 

8. Cradled in the camp, Napoleon was the darling of his army. 

9. She, the mother of thy boys, will talk of thy doom without 
a sigh. 

10. It was a grove of date trees, clustering close about a tiny 
spring. 

11. The bright flowers, living, fading, dying, are fit emblems of 
human life. 

12. The best sermon which was ever preached upon modern society 
is " Vanity Fair." 

SEAT WORK 

Rewrite the following sentences, changing words, phrases, 
and clauses as directed above : — 

1. A ship, sailing across the channel, struck a hidden rock. 

2. Upstood 
The hoar, unconscious walls, bisson and bare, 
Like an old man, deaf, blind, and gray. 

3. From the trees 

That shook down pulpy dates, and from the spring, 
The quiet author of that happy grove, 
My wants were sated. 

4. A man of calm and equable temper commands the respect of 
all who associate with him. 

5. Among them is standing Sandalphon, the angel of glory, San- 
dalphon, the angel of prayer. 

6. In the early gray of the morning the first announcement of the 
sunrise is the beautiful rays of pink and gold and varied hues which 
are painted upon the eastern sky. 

7. Calling is an old-time custom which never changes. 

8. He whose manners are put on for special occasions, whose gen- 
tleness is superficial and not of the heart, forgets his schooling in a 



PRONOUNS USED IN ASKING QUESTIONS 245 

LESSON CLXIII 

Pronouns Used in Asking Questions 

125. From the examples in the exercise below, it will be 
seen that the pronouns who, which, and what are often em- 
ployed to represent the person or thing inquired for ; and since 
they are thus used in asking questions (interrogating), they 
are called interrogative pronouns. 

Interrogative pronouns have some peculiarities. They are 
the same words that are so often used as relative pronouns; 
but, unlike the relative pronouns, they have no antecedent ex- 
pressed, and do not show the clause to be in a subordinate 
relation to any word. 

The interrogative pronoun can have no antecedent ex- 
pressed, for, if the speaker or writer could name the person 
or thing inquired for, the inquiry would be unnecessary, and 
no interrogative pronoun would be used. For this reason the 
number and gender of an interrogative pronoun are often in- 
definite. We must know the answer before the number and 
gender can be determined. 

EXERCISE 

1. Point out the interrogative pronouns, and account for 
the form of each : — 

1. Who comes there? 

2. What grieves you? 

3. What is his name? 

4. What is he doing? 

5. Which suits you best? 

6. Whom was he calling? 

7. Whose horse ran away? 

8. For whom were you inquiring? 

9. Whose house was burned last night? — Mr. Joy's. 
10. Who is sitting under the tree? — Joseph. 



246 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

2. In dealing with interrogative pronouns, bear in mind 
that whether the pronoun is in the nominative, objective, or 
possessive form, it usually stands at or near the beginning of 
the sentence, and often out of close connection with the word 
it is most closely related to. . Study the models below with 
much care. 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS 

Who came with you? 
Who is the subject; it alludes to the person inquired for; 
came is the predicate ; etc. 

Whom seek ye? 
Whom alludes to the person inquired for as the one sought 
Whose book have you? — Clara's. 

1. Whose alludes to the person inquired for as the owner 
of the book. 

2. Clara's answers the question by representing the ellip- 
tical clause, " I have Clara's book/' 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

Who are you? 

Who is a pronoun, interrogative, third person, number 
and gender indefinite; it is used with the copula to form the 
predicate, and is therefore put in the nominative case. 
Whose grammar do you use? — BelVs. 

Whose is a pronoun, interrog., 3d, sing., gender unknown ; 
it inquires for the author of the book, and is therefore put in 
the possessive case. 

Bell's is a noun, proper, 3d, sing., masc. ; it limits the 
noun grammar, understood, by denoting authorship, and is 
therefore put in the possessive case. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write the analysis of sentences 8, 9, and 10 above, and 
the parsing of the pronouns. 



PRONOUNS USED IN ASKING QUESTIONS 247 

2. Copy and fill the blanks with the proper form of inter- 
rogative pronoun in the masculine gender : — 

1. do you want to see? 

2. did you say it was? 

3. do men say that I am? 

4. shall I give it to? 

5. shall I tell? 

6. do you think will go? 

7. do you think they will send? 

8. did they take you to be? 

9. shall he go with? 

10. does she suppose it was? 

11. ■ was he supposed to be? 

12. did they suppose him to be? 

13. do you think ought to go? 

14. do you think they will call for? 

15. do you think they will name? 



LESSON CLXIV 

Adjectives Used Interrogatively 

When used with a noun, what and which become inter- 
rogative adjectives. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the interrogative adjectives and pronouns, and 
the adjective and adverbial clauses, and explain the use of 
each : — • 

1. What noise is that? 

2. Which State has the greatest population? 

3. What man lived longest? 

4. Beneath, terrific caverns gave 
Dark welcome to each stormy wave 
That dashed, like midnight revelers, in. 

— Moore. 



248 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

5. Which is the lesson that we are to prepare for tomorrow? 

6. For whom were you waiting when I saw you last evening? 

7. What I learned I remember. 

8. Who cares for him? 

9. I think of thee whene'er the sun is glowing 

Upon the lake; 
Of thee, when in the crystal fountain flowing 
The moonbeams shake. 

— Goethe. 

10. What book in the Bible is composed of poetry? 

11. Which one of the twelve disciples betrayed his Lord? 

12. What lesson is taught by Elisha's causing the ax to swim? 

Remarks. — In sentence 1, the subject is noise, understood, 
or the word that representing noise. Is what noise is the predi- 
cate ; it inquires for the particular noise — perhaps we might 
say the identity of it. If I say, " What man is that," is what 
man inquires for the identity of the man denoted by the sub- 
ject; man names one of a class, and zvhat inquires for his in- 
dividual name. That should be parsed as a limiting adjective, 
belonging to the noun man understood ; and if it is regarded 
as representing that noun, it is a substantive, subject of the 
sentence, and therefore put in the nominative case. What 
should be parsed as an adjective, limiting, added to the noun 
man to inquire for his identity — his proper name. 

In trying to determine the subject in such sentences, re- 
member that whenever the interrogative pronoun is used with 
the copula to inquire for the identity of a thing, it must be a 
part of the predicate, instead of being the subject. For in- 
stance, in sentence 5, is zvhich is the predicate, for it inquires 
for the particular kind of lesson here meant. 

The interrogative pronouns zvhich and zvhat might be re- 
garded as interrogative adjectives limiting a noun understood, 
but they are commonly parsed as pronouns whenever the noun 
is not expressed. 



ADJECTIVES USED INTERROGATIVELY 249 

SEAT WORK 

Write the parsing of the interrogative adjectives and pro- 
nouns, and the analysis of sentence 9: — 

1. What is his name? 

2. What studies are you pursuing? 

3. Always seek for what you most need. 

4. Who fell on that bloody field where heroes bled? 

5. Which horse is yours? 

6. What implement is that which you hold in your hand? 

7. Which is the largest ocean? 

8. Whose rod was kept in the ark? 

9. I see thee when the wanton wind is busy, 

And dust clouds rise ; 
In the deep night, when o'er the bridge so dizzy 
The wanderer hies. 

— Goethe. 

LESSON CLXV 

Substantive Clause as Object 
/ hear that you are going to Europe. 

In this sentence, that you are going to Europe tells what I 
hear. It is a clause, for it has a subject and predicate, and 
since it is the object of the transitive verb hear, it does the 
work of a noun ; for nouns and pronouns are the words com- 
monly used in that office. 

126. Nouns and pronouns are called substantives; and 
since this clause does the work of a noun or pronoun, it is 
called a substantive clause. Such a clause may be the ob- 
ject of a preposition as well as of a verb, as in sentence 8 
below. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the substantive clause, and tell how it is used : — ■ 

1. I know that my Redeemer liveth. 

2. I believe t^at the Bible is a sacred book. 



250 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

3. We found that he was prepared long before we got home. 

4. I deny that I deceived you, even if it does appear that I did. 

5. What wicked man murdered all his brothers? 

6. We admit that we were wrong. 

7. They acknowledged that they were defeated. 

8. Our happiness depends on what we desire. 

9. I fear that I weary you. 

10. Some deny that Bonaparte was a great man. 

11. George Miiller said that God never withholds anything from 
his children except that he may give them something better. 

12. When thou doest alms, let not thy left hand know what thy 
right hand doeth. 

13. Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow. 

14. Pray ye therefore the Lord of the harvest that he will send 
forth laborers into his harvest. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Sentence I 

1. / is the subject. 

2. Know is the predicate. 

3. That my Redeemer liveth tells what I know. 

4. That shows the clause to be subordinate in rank. 

5. Redeemer is the subject; liveth is the predicate-; and my, 
by alluding to the person speaking, tells whose Redeemer is 
meant. 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

That is a conjunction, subordinate; it introduces a substan- 
tive clause which is the object of the verb know. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy the sentences above, and place marks of paren- 
thesis around the substantive clause, to show its work as a 
unit in a single office — that of object. 

2. Write the analysis of the last six sentences, and the pars- 
ing of the conjunction in the first four. 



SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 251 

LESSON CLXV1 

Substantive Clauses Introduced by Interrogative 

Pronouns 
/ know who took the melons. 

In this sentence, who took the melons is a substantive- 
clause, object of the verb know. If this clause stood alone, 
it would be interrogative; so the pronoun who, which intro- 
duces it, is called an interrogative pronoun. It seems best to 
call these pronouns interrogative from the following consid- 
erations : — ■ 

1. Such a pronoun cannot be personal, for its person can- 
not be determined from its form,. 

2. It cannot be a relative pronoun, for it does not show its 
clause to be in a subordinate relation to any word. 

3. It agrees with the interrogative pronoun in the following 
particulars : — ■ 

a. Its number and gender are often indefinite. 

b. It has no antecedent expressed. 

c. It introduces a clause which would, in most cases, ask 
a question if it stood alone. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the substantive clause, and tell how it is intro- 
duced : — 

1. We heard who was elected. 

2. He knows who burned the building. 

3. He said, "Lord, who is it?" 

4. What next befell me then and there 

I know not well. 

— Byron. 

5. I know who you are. 

6. I know who took the books that lay on the table. 

7. Scatter the wheat for shipwrecked men, 
Who, hunger-worn, rejoice again 

In the sweet safety of the shore. 

- Bryant. 



252 * ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Sentence I. 

1. We is the subject. 

2. Heard is the predicate. 

3. Who was elected tells what we heard. 

4. Who is the subject of the subordinate clause; was elected 
is the predicate. 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

Who is a pronoun, interrogative, 3d., sing., gender indefi- 
nite; it is subject of the clause, and is therefore put in the 
nominative case. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of the first five sentences in this lesson, 
and the parsing of who in 6 and 7. 



LESSON CLXVII 

Substantive Clauses Introduced by Conjunctive 

Adverbs 

that he hid the money. 

who hid the money. 

ttt i j ) why he hid the money. 
We heard ( . , , . T , J 

how he hid the money. 

when he hid the money. 

where he hid the money. 

By studying this diagram, it may be seen that a substantive 
clause used as object of a transitive verb may be introduced 
by the conjunction that, by an interrogative pronoun, or by one 
of the adverbs why, how, when, or where. Each of these 
words has its peculiar signification. That directs attention 
to the action — the fact of his hiding the money; who directs 



SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 253 

attention not so much to the action as to the person that per- 
forms the action ; why intimates that attention is called chiefly 
to the person's motive or purpose in hiding the money ; how 
calls attention to the manner of the action, rather than to the 
action itself; when, to the time; and where, to the place. 

127. Words like how, when, where, and why which intro- 
duce a subordinate clause and do the work of an adverb, are 
called conjunctive adverbs. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the substantive clause and the word that intro- 
duces it ; also tell the signification of the introductory word : — 

1. He told how the ship was managed. 

2. The Indian knows where his friends are buried. 

3. We know not when his life departed. 

4. I heard why he declined the office. 

5. I guessed how the box was opened. 

6. No man ever heard how the conflict ended. 

7. We never knew why he concealed his left hand. 

8. At his death he told where the body was hidden. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Sentence 2 

1. Indian is the subject. 

2. Knozus is the predicate. 

3. Where his friends are buried tells what the Indian 
knows. 

4. Where shows the clause to be subordinate in rank. 

5. Friends is the subject; are buried is the predicate; and 
his, by alluding to the Indian, tells whose friends are meant. 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

Where is a conjunctive adverb. As a conjunction, it in- 
troduces a substantive clause that is object of the verb knows; 
as an adverb of place, it modifies the verb are buried. 



254 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

Remark. — Some may think that how as an introductory 
word does not show its clause to be subordinate in rank, since 
a clause with this word at its head may be an exclamatory 
sentence. But exclamatory sentences are used in expressing 
strong emotion, and when such a clause is made the object of 
a transitive verb, it becomes a direct quotation, the word how 
begins with a capital letter, does not show its clause to be sub- 
ordinate, and should be parsed merely as an adverb. But in 
the ordinary expression of thought, the case is different. Drop 
the word how from the subordinate clause in the first sentence 
of this lesson, and see if it will be a subordinate clause without 
that word. Could it in that form be used as object of the verb 
told? 

SEAT WORK 

Study the next lesson ; write the analysis of sentences 2 and 
3, and the parsing of the conjunctive adverbs in the rest of the 
sentences. 



LESSON CLXVIII 

The Substantive Clause as Subject 

That you are studious appears from your recitations. 

128. This sentence has a subordinate clause for its sub- 
ject. That introduces the clause, and shows it to be subordi- 
nate in rank. True, the clause as subject cannot be subordinate 
to any particular word; but it is not a principal clause, for it 
would not make complete sense if it stood alone; and since it 
is an element in a sentence, and could not constitute a sentence 
in itself, it is called subordinate. It is shown to be subordinate 
by the word that, for if this word were removed, the clause 
would make complete sense standing alone, and would there- 
fore be a principal clause. 



THE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE AS SUBJECT 255 

EXERCISE 

Tell the use of each substantive clause, and the force of 
the introductory word : — -' 

1. That the prisoner is guilty was proved by many witnesses. 

2. How you obtained the money so soon is a mystery to me. 

3. That the man confessed his guilt when no evidence was found 
against him, surprised the court. 

4. How he made his escape is a mystery. 

5. When he gave the fatal blow is a matter of uncertainty. 

6. Where he concealed the body is a subject that is much discussed. 

7. A pale yellow glow on the horizon told us where the lights of 
Edinburgh were afire. 

8. Where to get the information I desired was a puzzle to me. 

9. How the fly walks on the ceiling is a question in many a child's 
mind. 

10. Whom we should invite was the next thing to be settled. 

11. A light in the window shows that some one is looking for us. 

12. James wrote me that he expected to start for Europe soon. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Sentence i 

1. That the prisoner is guilty is the subject. 

2. Was proved is the predicate. 

3. The subject is itself a clause, and is introduced by that, 
which" shows it to be subordinate in rank. 

4. Prisoner is the, subject of the subordinate clause, and 
is guilty is the predicate. 

5. By many witnesses tells how the prisoner was proved 
guilty. 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

That is a conjunction, subordinate; it introduces a sub- 
stantive clause that is subject of the sentence. 

SEAT WORK 

Study the use of the clauses in the next lesson, and write 
the analysis of sentences 2, 8, and 9. 



256 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CLXIX 

Substantive Clauses in Predicate and in Apposition 
129. As we proceed with the study of substantive clauses, 
you will see that they can fill most of the offices of a noun or 
pronoun. It will help you to see readily what that office is if 
you will place marks of parenthesis around the clause, then 
deal with it as if it were a single word — a noun or pronoun. 
Doing thus with the clause in sentence 1, you will easily see 
that it is in predicate with is, or in predicated apposition 
with report, as some grammarians say. 

EXERCISE 

Determine the office of the subordinate clauses, as suggested 
above : — • 

1. The report is that the ship sailed yesterday. 

2. The decision was that the prisoner is guilty. 

3. My position is that negroes are men. 

4. The general opinion is that Morgan was murdered. 

5. The truth is that you are guilty. 

6. It is surprising that you care so little for the improvement of 
your mind. 

7. It is the general opinion that Morgan was murdered. 

8. It is probable that the money was taken by a servant. 

9. The question, "Are we a nation?" is now answered. 
10. Bursts the moon through glade and greenwood, 

Soft the herald zephyrs play, 

And the waving birches sprinkle 

Sweetest incense on my way. 

— Goethe. 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

Sentence i 

1. Report is the subject. 

2. Is that the ship sailed yesterday is the predicate. 

3. That the ship sailed yesterday explains the nature 
of the report, and is shows that the thought is predicated. 



SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 257 

4. That shows the clause to be subordinate in rank. 

5. Ship is the subject, and sailed is the predicate. 

Sentence 7 

1. It is the subject, and is opinion is the predicate. 

2. That Morgan was murdered explains what is meant 
by it. 

3. That shows the clause to be subordinate in rank. 

4. Morgan is the subject, and zms murdered is the pred- 
icate. 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

Sentence 1 
That is a conjunction, subordinate; it introduces a sub- 
stantive clause that is used with the copula to form a predicate. 

Sentence 7 
That is a conjunction, subordinate; it introduces a sub- 
stantive clause that is in apposition with it. 

SEAT WORK 

Study the clauses in the next lesson. Write the analysis 
of sentences 1, 4, and 5, and the parsing of the introductory 
word in 3, 6, and 7. 

LESSON CLXX 

Substantive Clauses 

EXERCISE 

1. It is reported that the governor is coming to this place next 
week. 

2. I hear that the young prince is an excellent scholar. 

3. I fear that you are careless in studying your lesson. 

4. He told how he escaped from the Indians. 

5. To see you here on such a day surprises me. 

17 



258 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

6. Animals know who love them, and love those who know them 
well. 

7. We know whom we worship, and we worship Him whom we 
know. 

8. The aquilegia sprinkled on the rocks 
A scarlet rain; the yellow violet 

Sat in the chariot of its leaves; the phlox 
Held spikes of purple flame in meadows wet, 
And all the streams with vernal-scented reed 
Were fringed, and streaky bells of miskodeed. 

— Bayard Taylor. 
SEAT WORK 

1. Copy sentences 1-7 in this lesson. Inclose each subor- 
dinate clause in marks of parenthesis to show its office as a 
single element in the sentence, and tell what that office is. 

2. Draw a wavy line under the introductory word, and a 
straight line under the word which the clause modifies. 

LESSON CLXXI 

Miscellaneous Exercise 

Do with these sentences as directed in the seat work of the 
preceding lesson : — 

1. Who is the old man that came into meeting yesterday with his 
hat on? 

2. Why are you spending so much time in an enterprise that gives 
no promise of success? 

3. Blessed is the man whose God is the Lord. 

4. He accepts what others reject. 

5. Be honest in whatever business you engage. 

6. A large building stands over the cave where Abraham was 
buried. 

7. Sing me about the wild waste shore, 

Where, long and long ago, with me 
You watched the silver sails that bore 
The great, strong ships across the sea, — 
The blue, the bright, the boundless sea. 

— Alice Cary. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 259 

Remark. — Sentence 7 contains a case of apposition in 
which a word is repeated for rhetorical effect. The word sea 
in the last line becomes explanatory of the word sea in the 
preceding line, because in the last line it is limited by the ad- 
jectives blue, bright, and boundless. These adjectives might 
be added to the noun without repeating it, but the thought 
would not be so forcibly expressed. 

130. Such a case of rhetorical apposition is called an echo, 
and requires the addition of a dash to the comma used to set 
it off. 

SEAT WORK 

Do with the sentences in the next lesson as directed above. 



LESSON CLXXII 

Miscellaneous Exercise 

1. We ascended the hill on which the battle was fought. 

2. He builds a palace of ice where his torrent falls. 

3. A kind boy avoids doing whatever annoys others. 

4. He did what was right. 

5. Closing the book, and turning toward the fire, he sat for a 
long time, gazing at the dying embers, and meditating on the strange 
events recorded in the book which was lying before him. 

6. Thus we are marking on all our work whatever we have of 
grace. 

7. And ever and anon came on the still air the soft, eternal pulsa-r 
tions of the distant sea, — sound mournfulest, most mysterious, of all 
the harpings of nature. — Mrs. Stowe. 

Remark. — Sentence 7 contains an echo, not of a word, 
but of a thought. It is punctuated like the ordinary echo. 

131. This sentence also contains two examples of what is 
called the superlative form of the adjective. It is the form 
which we use when, in comparing one object or group of ob- 



260 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

jects with several others, we wish to represent it as possessing 
more or less of the quality than any other with which it is 
compared. This form is commonly made by adding est to 
short words, and by prefixing the word most or least to longer 
ones. Both methods are illustrated in sentence 7. 

SEAT WORK 

Do with the sentences in the next lesson as directed above. 
In sentence 1 enlarge one of the participial phrases into a 
relative clause. 



LESSON CLXXIII 

Miscellaneous Exercise 

1. They came to masses and fragments of naked rock, heaped con- 
fusedly together, like a cairn reared by giants in memory of a giant 
chief. 

2. On returning from Portmoak churchyard, where Bruce is bur- 
ied, I, attended by my venerable guide, visited the lowly dwelling where 
the parents of the poet resided. 

3. Ascending a narrow lane, we reached, near its center, the house 
in which Bruce was born. 

4. The moon arose : the bosom of the lawn 
Whitened beneath her silent snow of light, 

Save where the trees made isles of mystic night, 
Dark blots against the rising splendor drawn. 

— Bayard Taylor. 

5. It is a good divine that follows his own instructions. 

— : Shakespeare. 

6. Mislike me not for my complexion, 

The shadowed livery of the burnished sun 
To whom I am a neighbor, and near bred. 

— • Shakespeare. 

Remark. — Sentence 4 contains a substantive clause that 
is object of the preposition save, and sentence 5, an adjective 
clause that limits it, or the noun divine represented by it; for 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 261 

the meaning is, " The divine that follows his own instructions 
is a good divine/' 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write the analysis of sentence 2 below, and the parsing 
of the relative pronouns in both sentences : — 

1. On the dam stood Paw-puk-keewis, 
On the dam of trunks and branches, 
Through whose chinks the water spouted, 
O'er whose summit flowed the streamlet. 

— Longfellow. 

2. The wild, untraveled forest spreads 
Back to those mountains white and cold, 
Of which the Indian trapper told, 
Upon whose summits never yet 

Was mortal foot in safety set. 

2. In Lessons 102-108, review all the instruction on par- 
ticiples. 

LESSON CLXXIV 

Review on Participles 

Give the form of each participle, tell what it modifies, and 
also tell how the participle is modified : — 

1. Leisurely we moved along, gazing all day on the grandeur and 
beauty of the wild scenery around us. 

2. He heard the plaintive Nubian songs again, 

And mule bells, tinkling down the mountain paths of Spain. 

— ■ Whittier. 

3. Hidden in the alder bushes, 
There he waited till the deer came. 

— Longfellow. 

4. From his lodge went Hiawatha, 
Dressed for travel, armed for hunting; 
Dressed in deerskin shirt and leggings, 
Richly wrought with quills and wampum. 

— Longfellow. 



262 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

5. It was the sea, — the deep, eternal sea, — the treacherous, soft, 
dreadful, inexplicable sea. — Stowe, 

6. Moan, ye wild winds ! around the pane, 
And fall, thou drear December rain ! 
Fill with your gusts the sullen day, 
Tear the last clinging leaves away ! 

— Bayard Taylor. 

QUESTIONS AND REQUIREMENTS 

1. How do participles differ from verbs? 

2. Give an example of a participle used as an adjective. 

3. Give a sentence containing a participle used as a noun. 

4. Explain the difference between passive participles and 
active participles, and illustrate by examples. 

5. How do we determine whether a participle should be 
called past or present? 

6. What echoes do you find in sentence 5 ? Explain them. 

7. Classify the clauses in sentence 6, and give the mode, 
tense, person, and subject of each verb. 

SEAT WORK 

Write sentences containing transitive and intransitive verbal 
nouns of both forms, — participial and infinitive. 



LESSON CLXXV 

Review on Verbal Nouns 

Review Lesson 109, then point out the verbal nouns and 
participles, telling the use of each : — ■ 

1. Tomorrow morning, with the rising sun, 
Go back unto your convent, nor refrain 
From fasting and from scourging. 

2. The prisoner attempted to escape. 

3. They laid plans for undermining the walls of the prison. 

4. His trying to evade our question proved his guilt. 



REVIEW ON VERBAL NOUNS 263 

5. Worn out by watching for the coming of the secret foe, he 
sought to arouse himself by thinking of the dangers of his situation. 

6. Sometimes a cloud, with thunder black, 

Stooped low upon the darkening main, 
Piercing the waves along its track 
With the slant javelins of rain. 

7. The moonlight falls in a misty flood 

Adown on my chamber roof, 
And a thousand thoughts in my busy brain 

Soon are woven into woof. 
I think I stand on Italia's shore, 

And muse as the moonbeams fall 
On the glassy sea, and the ivied fanes, 

And many a ruined wall. 

— Sara Genevra Chafa. 

Remarks. — The expression many a ruined wall is nearly 
equivalent to many ruined walls. It seems inconsistent that 
many and a should limit the same noun, since the former is 
always used with a plural noun, and the latter with a singular. 
But the expression seems to mean about the same as many 
times a ruined wall, or at least the mind is led to consider the 
walls separately, and thus they appear more distinct and more 
numerous. 

SEAT WORK 

Write out the analysis of sentence 7 above, and the parsing 
of woven and ruined. 



LESSON CLXXVI 

Form of Noun or Pronoun Before a Verbal Noun 

132. It is important to distinguish the verbal noun ending 
in ing from the pure participle, since this distinction often de- 
termines the form of noun or pronoun which precedes the 
verbal noun. Note these sentences, and see if you can dis- 



264 EXGLISH LANGUAGE 

tinguish a difference in the meaning of the phrases printed in 
italics : — 

1. Did you see John going away? 

2. Have you heard of John's going away? 

3. What do you think of my going away? 

In the first sentence, the main question is about John, while 
going denotes an action assumed of John, and is therefore a 
participle. 

In the second sentence, the chief inquiry is about the going 
azeay, as can be easily shown by substituting for it the noun 
departure. This shows the noun use of going, which is plainly 
a verbal noun, accompanied by the possessive form Johns. 

The same is true of my going, in the third sentence, as of 
Johns going, in the second. 

Errors are frequently made by using the objective form 
before a verbal noun instead of the possessive; as. What do 
you think of me going away? Correctly interpreted, this sen- 
tence means : What do you think of me while in the act of 
going away. But the obvious intent of the question is to ask 
what you think of the act or idea of my going away. 

EXERCISE 

Determine which of the following forms is preferable : — 

1. I remember you (your) speaking to me about it. 

2. Have you heard of the teacher (teachers) being ill? 

3. What do you think of him (his) studying music? 

4. We saw a beggar (beggar's") knocking at the door. 

5. What is the good of you (your) doing that? 

6. You can depend on me (my) being on time. 

7. We were surprised at it (its) being her (she). 

8. I heard John (John's) reading to his mother. 

9. It may lead to Mary (Mary's) leaving school. 

10. There is no use in me (my") trying to learn to sing 

11. What do you think about this cloth (cloth's) wearing well? 

12. It all depends on us (our) catching the train. 



NOUN OR PROXOUX BEFORE A VERBAL NOUN 265 

SEAT WORK 

Either of the forms in the following sentences may be prop- 
erly used. Write out the difference in meaning of the sen- 
tence with one form from that with the other : — 

1. The rain (rain's) coming so soon spoiled our plans. 

2. I had to laugh at father (father's) riding a bicycle. 

3. It all depends on the teacher (teacher's) giving the examination. 

4. I never heard of that man (man's) running for office. 

5. Think of me (my) riding a donkey! 



LESSON CLXXVII 

Review on Class 

Review Lessons 91-93, then point out the class nouns, and 
tell how they are used : — 

1. The original draft was penned by Mr. Jefferson, the chairman 
of the committee. 

2. The autumnal tints already decorated the shores of that queen 
of rivers, the Ohio. 

3. What are ye, O pallid phantoms ! 

That haunt my troubled brain? 
That vanish when day approaches, 
. And at night return again? 

— Longfellow. 

4. The duchess, a very tall and very handsome woman, with a 
smile of the most winning sweetness, received me at the dcor. — Willis. 

5. He appeared on this occasion in great state, accompanied by 
his household and his kinsmen, the heads of the noblest x amilies in 
Spain. 

6. The returning birds are the first joyful harbingers of spring. 

7. Xathan, the prophet of the Lord, related the parable of the 
ewe lamb to David, king of Israel. 

8. Samuel and Elisha were teachers in the schools of the prophets. 



SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 1, 2, and 4. 



266 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CLXXVIII 

Review on Interrogative Sentences 

Review Lesson 88, then point out the interrogative sen- 
tences, giving the subject and predicate of each : — 

1. Is that a being of life, that moves 
Where the crystal battlements rise? 

— Bryant. 

2. Is there neither spirit nor motion of thought 
In forms so lovely, and hues so bright? 

— Bryant. 

3. There is a reaper whose name is Death, 

And with his sickle keen, 
He reaps the bearded grain at a breath, 
And the flowers that grow between. 

— Longfellow. 

4. For whom are those glorious chambers wrought, 

In the cold and cloudless night? 

— Bryant. 

5. Whither now are fled those dreams of greatness? 

6. Again I track its footsteps, 

To a far Egyptian plain, 
Where it falls in liquid glory 

Like a shower of silver rain. 
And it halos the grand old pyramids 

In their mighty, solemn state, 
And it calls up within my spirit 

The dead, and the ancient great. 

— Chafa. 

7. Breathes there a soul so dead 
Who to his country ne'er hath said, 

" My own, my native land " ? 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write the analysis of sentence 6 above, and the parsing 
of where and great. 

2, What figure of speech in the fourth line? 



REVIEW ON COORDINATE CLAUSES 267 

LESSON CLXXIX 

Review on Coordinate Clauses 

Review Lessons 134 and 135, then point out the coordinate 
clauses and the conjunctions that connect them: — 

1. I was oppressed by such unexpected kindness, and sleep fled 
from my eyes. 

2. The snows of age fell, but he was not chilled by them. 

3. O'er the frozen earth, the loud winds run, 
Or snows are sifted o'er the meadows bare. 

4. Vainly, but well, the chieftain fought; 

He is a captive now, 
Yet pride, that fortune humbles not, 
Is written on his brow. 

5. And virtue never dwells with slaves, nor reigns 
O'er those, who, cowering, take a tyrant's yoke. 

6. But trees, and rivulets whose rapid course 
Defies the check of winter, haunts of deer, 
And sheep walks populous with bleating lambs, 
And lanes in which the primrose, ere her time, 

Peeps through the moss that clothes the hawthorn root, 
Deceive no student. Wisdom there and truth 

seize at once 
The roving thought, and fix it on themselves. 

— Cowper. 

7. Danish schools do not use a spelling book, but spelling is taught 
as a part of the reading process. 

8. The artist, perhaps, would not have picked her out as especially 
pretty, but she was neat and clean, tastefully dressed, and decidedly 
attractive. 

9. Some seeds make journeys with wings, and others travel from 
place to place by attaching themselves to the clothes of men or the hair 
of animals; still others make their journey in the stomachs of birds. 

10. The hard nuts of our nut-bearing trees are not used as food by 
birds or large animals, but are usually sought by squirrels and small 
rodents. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentence 5 above, and the parsing 
of who and cowering. 



268 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CLXXX 

Review on Substantive Clauses 

Review Lessons 165-169, then point out the substantive 
clauses and tell how they are used : — 

1. I fear that some are deceiving themselves. 

2. I learned with sorrow that my old friend was dead. 

3. Of all beasts he learned the language, 
Learned their names and all their secrets, 
How the beavers built their lodges, 
Where the squirrels hid their acorns, 
How the reindeer ran so swiftly, 

Why the rabbit was so timid, 

Talked with them whene'er he met them. 

— Hiawatha. 

4. Who revealed the secret was never known. 

5. That he was an impostor is probable from his disappearing so 
suddenly. 

6. It is plain that they are striving for the honor and glory which 
this world gives. 

7. Some believe that man is immortal. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the parsing of the words that introduce substantive 
dauses in sentences 1-3. 



LESSON CLXXXI 

Review on Relative Pronouns 

Review Lessons 150-153, then point out the relative pro- 
nouns and tell how they are used: — 

1. He gave me what he had. 

2. There is a tide in the affairs of men, 
Which, taken at its flood, leads on to fortune. 



REVIEW ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS 269 

3. Blessed is the man to whom the Lord imputeth not iniquity. 

4. Blessed are they whose iniquities are forgiven. 

5. Encounter bravely whatever difficulties you meet. 

6. Where are they now? What lands and skies 
Paint pictures in their friendly eyes? 

What hope deludes, what promise cheers, 
What pleasant voices fill their ears? 

— Tales of a Wayside Inn. 

Remarks. — In example 6, they is the subject of the first 
sentence, and are where is the predicate. It inquires for con- 
dition in regard to locality. Where, then, must be an adjective, 
just like here and there when used with the copula to predicate 
condition in regard to locality. These words are so generally 
used as adverbs, that it seems hard to recognize them in any 
other office ; but " John is here " means exactly the same as, 
" John is present" and no one doubts that present is an ad- 
jective. These adverbs appear to become adjectives by repre- 
senting some participle which they would limit as adverbs if it 
were expressed; but in many instances it seems impossible to 
find a participle that will exactly express the thought, and so 
we have to make the adverb do the work of an adjective. In 
the same way, phrases originally adverbial become adjective 
by the omission of the participle. Thus: — 
The rich valley lying at our feet was beautiful in the extreme. 
The rich valley at our feet was beautiful in the extreme. 

In the first sentence, lying at our feet is a participial phrase, 
and as a whole, an adjective element; but at our feet is, in that 
sentence, an adverbial phrase limiting a participle. In the sec- 
ond sentence, however, at our feet seems to do the same work 
that the entire participial phrase does in the first, and so be- 
comes an adjective element. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentence 2, and the parsing of which 
and taken. 



270 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CLXXXII 

Review on Relative Adverbs 

Review Lessons 156-158, then point out the relative ad- 
verbs, and describe their use : — 

1. We came to a place where the stream was crowded into a nar- 
row channel between two perpendicular walls of solid rock. 

2. This is a time when all men are looking for some great event 
in the world's history. 

3. It is reported that the general is visiting among his friends. 

4. We carefully preserved whatever records were intrusted to 
our care. 

5. That is the room where my father died. 

6. We all remember the bright May morning when he closed his 
eyes, and passed away so peacefully. 

7. Then, seizing a staff in his eager hand, 
He hurried over the burning sand, 

To a cell where a holy brother lay, 
Wasting and dying day by day. 

— Phoebe Cary. 

8. But peaceful was the night 
Wherein the Prince of light 

His reign of peace upon the earth began. 

— Milton. 
SEAT WORK 
Study the next lesson thoroughly. These reviews are among 
the most profitable exercises you have. 



LESSON CLXXXIII 

Synoptical Review 

In past lessons we have noticed : — 
1. Names of things, and how, by change of form and 
position, they are adapted to the different circumstances of 
their use. 



SYNOPTICAL REVIEW 271 

2. Qualities of things: how denoted; how predicated; 
and how assumed. 

3. The convenience of alluding to the speaker, a person 
spoken to, or a person or thing that has been named. 

4. Our need for pointing out particular things, or 
for telling how many, without giving any of their qualities. 

5. Actions: how denoted; how predicated. 

6. The modifying of actions and qualities by single 
words and by groups of words. 

7. How groups called adjective phrases are sometimes 
employed instead of single words to denote quality; and also 
how these phrases, as well as possessive nouns and pronouns, 
are used to denote ownership, origin, authorship, adaptation, 
measure, kind, etc. 

8. How the verb by certain changes of form, is adapted 
to the various circumstances of its use. 

9. How sentences are made to ask questions, or to ex- 
press commands, exhortations, entreaties, etc. 

10. How things are described by assuming or predicating 
that they belong to a class whose qualities are well known, 
and how we assume or predicate the identity of things already 
known to belong to a certain class. 

11. How actions are assumed, and the different ways 
in which they are named. 

12. How words, phrases, and clauses are shown to be equal 
in rank, and alike in relation. 

13. How adjectives and possessive pronouns are employed 
to limit nouns understood. 

14. How nouns may be independent by address, and 
sometimes accompanied by words denoting emotion. 

15. How adverbial phrases may be used without a prep- 
osition. 

16. How things may be described by comparing them 
with other things whose qualities are well known. 



272 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

17. How clauses may be employed as adverbs, to modify 
actions or qualities; as adjectives, to point out or describe 
objects; or like nouns, as the subject of a sentence, the object 
of a verb or preposition, with the copula in predicate, or in 
apposition. 

EXERCISE 

Note. — In giving examples, either select and copy them 
or write them yourself. Always underline the part of the 
sentence intended for the illustration. 

1. Show by examples how nouns are adapted to the va- 
rious circumstances of their use. 

2. Exemplify the various forms and uses of the personal 
pronouns. 

3. Show by examples the various uses of the verb. 

4. Show how sentences are made to ask questions, and 
how they are made to express commands. 

5. Show how things are described by assuming or predi- 
cating that they belong to a class. 

6. Give examples of assuming and predicating identity. 

7. Show by examples how actions are assumed. 

8. Illustrate by examples the different ways of naming 
actions. 

9. Show how words, phrases, and clauses are made co- 
ordinate. 

10. Give examples of adjectives and possessive pronouns 
used to limit a noun understood. 

11. Give examples of nouns independent by address,; of 
adverbial phrases used without a preposition. 

12. Show how things may be described by comparing them 
with other things whose qualities and actions are known. 

13. Give examples of clauses used as adverbs. 

14. Give examples of clauses used as adjectives. 

15. Give examples of clauses used as nouns in all the of- 
fices mentioned in 17 above. 



FUTURE TENSE PREDICATING ACTION 273 

LESSON CLXXXLV 

Future Tense Predicating Action 

133. Sometimes we wish to* predict a future action, and 
sometimes to express our purpose or determination to perform 
an action, or that some one else shall perform it. For this 
purpose we have a peculiar form of the verb called the future 
tense. 

We have seen that there are two ways of naming actions 
We may say, — 

Running tires me, 
To run tires me, or 
It tires me to run. 
In the first sentence, running names the action that tires 
me, and in the other two sentences, to run names the same 
action. 

134. Running and to run are both verbal nouns, one in the 
participial form, and the other in the infinitive form. The 
word run is. used when we wish to predicate the action ; but 
to run is called the name form of the' verb; for it is used to 
name the verb itself, and also the action or state denoted by 
the verb. 

In forming the future tense we use the name form of the 
verb, leaving off the to, and prefix to it the word shall or will 
The name form without to denotes the action, and shall or 
will shows it to be future ; as, shall write, will come. 

Verbs in the future tense do not change their form on ac- 
count of the person and number of their subject, except for 
thou, which requires shalt and wilt in place of shall and will. 

Form the future tense of, — 

to sing to succeed to persevere to try- 

to talk to believe to descend to obey 

to think to remain to follow to travel 

1. When do we employ the future tense? 
18 



274 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

2. In making this tense, what do we use to denote the 
action ? 

3. What to show the time? 

EXERCISE 

Point out the verbs in the future tense, and tell how each 
is formed: — 

1. He will come in an hour when some least expect him. 

2. Here shall I rest with my friends by the sounding rock. 

3. The stars of heaven shall guide us, 
The breath of heaven shall speed. 

4. He never will know what hurt him. 

5. I shall one day stand by the river cold, 

And list for the sound of the boatman's oar. 

6. Back will I go o'er the ocean. 

7. Turn, gentle hermit of the dale, 

And guide my lonely way, 
To where yon taper cheers the vale 
With hospitable ray. 

— Oliver Goldsmith. 

8. No flocks that range the valley free, 

To slaughter I condemn; 
Taught by that Power that pities me, 
I learn to pity them. 

— Oliver Goldsmith. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 7 and 8 above. 



LESSON CLXXXV 

Future Tense Predicating Quality, Condition, or Class 

135. When we wish to predict future quality or condition, 
we put the future tense of the copula before the adjective 
that denotes the quality or condition. 



FUTURE TENSE PREDICATING QUALITY, ETC. 275 

The future tense of the copula is formed by the rule al- 
ready given. The name form of the copula is to be. Dropping 
the to, and prefixing shall or ivill, we have shall be or will be 
as the future tense of the copula. 

When we wish to predict that some person or thing will be 
a member of a class at some future time, we put the future 
tense of the copula before the noun that names the class. 

Change the verbs in the following sentences to the future 
tense : — 

1. James is faithful. 4. I am satisfied. 

2. Andrew is a good scholar. 5. The task was difficult. 

3. Arthur is ready. 6. He was an excellent guide. 

Remarks. — In all these cases the copula is parsed by itself 
as a verb. The adjective and the noun form a part of the pred- 
icate, but not a part of the verb. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the verbs in the future tense, tell how they are 
formed, and tell in each case whether the verb predicates qual- 
ity, condition, or class : — 

1. Cold will be the winter, for thick is the fur of the foxes. 

2. By silent river, by moaning sea, 
Long and vain shall thy watching be. 

3. Who will be a hero in the strife? 

4. We shall learn where it was obtained. 

5. No more shall he hear thy voice ; 

No more awake at thy call. 

6. I shall be cold in death before the morning breaks. 

7. Ye shall be a peculiar treasure unto me. 

8. When o'er their boughs the squirrels run, 

And through their leaves the robins call, 
And, ripening in the autumn's sun, 
The acorns and the chestnuts fall, 
Doubt not that she will heed them all. 

— Oliver Wendell Holmes, 



276 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
SEAT WORK 



1. Select and copy neatly, — 

Four sentences predicating future action. 

Two sentences predicating future condition or quality. 

Two sentences predicating future class. 

2. Write the analysis of sentence 8. 



LESSON CLXXXVI 

The Present Perfect Tense 

136. Sometimes we wish to show that the action is in a 
completed state at the time of mentioning it. For the purpose 
of showing the completed, or finished, state of the action, we 
have what is called the past participle. In regular verbs this 
past participle is spelled the same as the past tense, but the past 
participle of irregular verbs usually differs from the past tense, 
as will be seen by the following table : — 











Past 


Name Form 


Pres. Tense 


Past Tense 


Participle 


to walk 


walk or walks 


walked 




walked 


to write 


write or writes 


wrote 




written 


to go 


go or goes 


went 




gone 


to fly 


fly or flies 


flew 




flown 


to see 


see or sees 


saw 




seen 


to leave 


leave or leaves 


left 




left 


to be 


am, is, or are 


was or 


were 


been 



This past participle cannot in itself predicate anything. 
When we wish to predicate an action and represent it as com- 
pleted at the time of mentioning it, we use the past participle 
to denote the completed state of the action, and put before it 
the verb to have to show that the act is predicated. We 
use the present tense of to have {have or has) to show that 
the act is in a completed state at the time of mentioning it. 



THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 277 

137. The tense thus formed is called the present perfect 

tense, because it shows the action to be in a completed (per- 
fect) state at the present time. The act is perfect in the sense 
of being completed. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What do we have for the purpose of denoting action, 
and representing it as being in a completed state ? 

2. What class of verbs always have their past tense and 
pas,t participle formed alike? Give verbs whose past tense and 
past participle are not alike. 

3. When we wish to predicate an action, and show that 
it is completed, what do we use to denote the action? 

4. Does this word do anything more than merely denote 
the action? What? 

5. Can it predicate the action? 

6. Can it show the time of the action? 

7. What is employed to show the time of the action, and 
that it is predicated? 

8. What do we call that form of the verb which predicates 
that an action is complete (finished) at the present time? 

9. Of what two parts does this tense consist? 

10." What two purposes does the past participle serve ? 

11. What two purposes are served by the auxiliary verb 
to have? 

In common language, the present perfect tense has but one 
change for the person and number of its subject. Whenever 
the subject is in the third person, singular number, we use 
has in place of have. 

Thou changes have to hast. 

This form is frequently found in the Bible, in poetry, and 
in very old English. In the same places, the third person sing- 
ular often uses hath instead of has. 



278 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

EXERCISE 

1. Form the present perfect tense of every verb in the pre- 
ceding list. 

2. Tell, in every case, why you use the past participle, and 
why the verb fo have. 

3. Tell what is wrong in each of the following sentences, 
why it is wrong, and how it can be made right : — 

1. I have broke my slate. 

2. Ellen has tore her dress. 

3. I have eat my dinner. 

4. Ben has went to town. 

5. I have ran all the way. 

6. We have wrote our compositions. 

7. The young birds have flew away. 

8. I have saw a man walk on a rope. 

9. I seen Sarah tear that book. 

10. I run all the way to school yesterday. 

11. Thou hath been my dwelling place in all generations. 

12. Mine enemies hath vexed me sorely. 

13. How hast the busy little bee improved each shining hour ! 

14. Where has thou come from, little brook? 

MODEL FOR CORRECTING TENSE FORMS 

Sentence I 
Have broke should be have broken, for the past parti- 
ciple should be used with have or has to form the present per- 
fect tense. 

Sentence p 
In this sentence, seen should be saw; for seen is the past 
participle, and can neither show time nor predicate action. 

SEAT WORK 

Write out the correction of the fourteen sentences above, 
according to the model. 



THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 279 

LESSON CLXXXVII 

The Present Perfect Tense 

Give the tense of each verb, and tell how it is formed and 
what it expresses: — 

1. O have ye seen the young Kathleen, the flower of Ireland? 

2. We have come across the sea. 

3. Thou hast brought comfort to our dwelling. 

4. I shall watch for a gleam of the flapping sail; 

I shall hear the boat as it gains the strand. 

— Miss Priest. 

5. The wind and the waves their work have done; 
We shall see him no more beneath the sun. 

— Whit tier. 

6. Who has not dreamed of a world of bliss 
On a bright, sunny day like this? 

7. Now every hovering insect to his place beneath the leaves hath 
flown. 

8. Sweet smiling village, loveliest of the lawn, 

Thy sports are fled, and all thy charms withdrawn; 
Amidst thy bowers the tyrant's hand is seen, 
And desolation saddens all thy green. 

— Goldsmith. 

Remark. — Are fled, in sentence 8, means have fled; it is 
a relic of an old conjugation, now nearly obsolete, in which 
to be' was used in place of to have in the perfect tenses. It 
should be parsed as the present perfect tense. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

I have given some attention to farming. 

1. 7 is the subject. 

2. Have given is the predicate; it predicates action, and 
represents it as completed at the time of mentioning it. 

3. Given denotes the action, and represents it as completed. 

4. Have shows that the action is predicated, and denotes 
present time. 

5. Etc. 



280 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 4 and 6 below ; correct all 
errors in the other examples, writing reasons for the changes 
made : — ■ 

1. The wind has blew furiously all night. 

2. I give two dollars for that book, and afterwards sold it for 
ninety cents. 

3. We never knew who released the prisoners. 

4. Since then, the winter blasts have piled the white pagodas of 
the snow on these rough slopes. 

5. My grandfather come over in a ship that was built in Holland. 

6. And over those gray fields, then green and gold, 

The summer corn has waved, the thunder's organ rolled. 

7. The price of wheat has fell ten cents on a bushel. 

8. I knowed him when he first come in. 

MODELS FOR CORRECTING TENSE FORMS 

Knowed should be knew; for know is an irregular verb, 
and does not form its past tense by adding ed to the present. 

Come should became; for come is the present tense and 
also the past participle, but should never be used as the past 
tense. 

LESSON CLXXXVIII 

The Past Perfect Tense 

We often wish to represent an act as having been com- 
pleted at some time in the past. We then use the past parti- 
ciple to denote the action and show it to be in a completed 
state, and the past tense of to have to show that the act is 
predicated, and to denote the time in which it was completed. 

In this case we want to predicate an action, and represent 
it as completed, just as we do in the present perfect tense; 
but we wish to show that it was completed in the past, so we 
use the past tense of to have instead of its present tense. 



THE PAST PERFECT TENSE 281 

138. This tense is called the past perfect tense, and 

differs from the present perfect only in time. It consists of 
the past participle, and the past tense of to have, just as the 
present perfect consists of the past participle, and the present 
tense of to have. 

The past perfect tense has no change for person and num- 
ber; so in parsing verbs in this tense, we say, " Verbs in this 
tense do not change their form for the person and number of 
their subject" But this is not saying that verbs in this tense 
have no person or number, for all verbs do have them of ne- 
cessity. It is only saying that verbs in the past perfect tense 
do not show person and number by their form. If we want 
to know the person and number we must get them from the 
subject of the verb. * 

Change the present perfect tenses in the two preceding 
lessons to past perfect tenses. 

EXERCISE 

Give the tense of each verb, and tell how it is formed. 
Change the past perfect tenses to the present perfect: — 

1. They had waited by the sea till he came o'er from Gadara. 

2. Many a weary year had passed since the burning of Grand Pre. 

3. The evening gun had sounded from gray Fort Mary's walls. 

4. The night cloud had lowered, and the sentinel stars set their 
watch in the sky. 

5. I will still trust in him. 

6. He had taken refuge in a cave, the entrance of which was hid 
from observation by a thick clump of cedars. 

SEAT WORK 

Select and copy five sentences containing a verb in the pres- 
ent perfect tense, and give it in the past perfect. Underline 
the verb phrase in each sentence. 



282 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CLXXXIX 

The Tenses 

In dealing with the tenses, always bear in mind that tense 
does not denote time only. In the simple tenses — present, 
past, future — time is the principal thing denoted by the tense 
form. In the compound tenses — present perfect, past perfect, 
future perfect — time is still denoted (by some form of have), 
but the chief purpose of the compound tenses is to denote com- 
pleted state of the action. 

EXERCISE 

Name the tense of each verb, and tell how it is formed. 
Give the person and number of each verb: — ■ 

1. The lowliest bush that by the waste is seen 
Hath changed its dusky for a golden green. 

2. When night comes on the hill, and when the loud winds arise, 
my ghost shall stand in the blast, and mourn the death of my friends. 

3. She had lain since noontide in a breathless trance. 

4. " Here I remain ! " he exclaimed, as he looked at the heavens 

above him, 
Thanking the Lord, whose breath had scattered the mist and 

the madness, 
Wherein, blind and lost, to death he was staggering headlong. 

— Longfellow. 

5. Those dusky foragers, the noisy rooks, 

Have from their green high city gates rushed out. 

— Thomas Miller. 

Remarks. — Hath, in sentence 1, belongs to what is called 
the solemn style. It is seldom used except in the Bible, in 
poetry, and in the conversation of the Friends. 

SEAT WORK 

Write a composition on " Wild Animals I Have Seen." 
Give a paragraph to each animal, telling where and when you 
saw it, and anything about it that especially interested you. 



THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 283 

LESSON CXC 

The Future Perfect Tense 

139. Sometimes we wish to predict that an action will be 
completed at some point of time in the future. This creates 
a demand for what is called the future perfect tense. This 
tense is just like the other perfect tenses, except in time. It 
consists of the past participle and the future tense of to have, 
just as the past perfect consists of the past participle and the 
past tense of to have; the past participle being used to show 
the completed state of the action, and the future tense of to 
have to show that it is to be completed in future time. 

The future tense of to have is formed just like the fu- 
ture tense of any other verb. Dropping to from the name 
form, and then prefixing shall or will, gives us shall have or 
will have as the future tense, and prefixing this to the past 
participle of any verb gives us the future perfect tense of that 
verb. 

The future perfect tense, like the past perfect, never 
changes its form for the person and number of its subject. 

Adapt the questions in Lesson 186 to the future perfect 
tense, and give proper answers. 

EXERCISE 

1. Form all the perfect tenses of the following verbs in the 
first and third persons singular : — 



fear 


stay 


wear 


smite 


shake 


write 


throw 


steal 


sing 


weave 


take 


rise 



2. Give the tense of each verb, and tell how it is formed : — 

1. I shall have completed the work before the appointed time. 

2. Before you receive this letter, he will have met his fate. 

3. Three nights by its quiet side had greatly endeared to us the 
associations of its waves and shores. 



284 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

4. By the time I see him again, he will have lost all these qual- 
ities ; he will have acquired some knowledge of the world. 

5. For weeks the clouds had raked the hills. 

And vexed the vales with raining; 
And all the woods were sad with mist, . 
And all the brooks complaining. 

— Whittier. 

6. By that time he will have reached his destination. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Study the next lesson, and write out the analysis of sen- 
tence 1. 

2. What figures of speech do you find in sentences 1 and 
4 ? What effect do they have on the thought ? 



lesson cxci 

Miscellaneous Exercise 

Give the mode, tense, and person of each verb: — 

1. All day the darkness and the cold 

Upon my heart have lain, 
Like shadows on the winter sky, 
Like frost upon the pane. 

2. We shall have pleasant walks with your friends. 

3. I have seen him today. 

4. Painter, paint me a sycamore, 

A spreading and snowy-limbed tree, 

Making cool shelter for three, 
And, like a green quilt at the door 

Of the cabin near the tree, 

Picture the grass for me, 
With a winding and dusty road before, 

Not far from the group of three 

And the silver sycamore tree. 

— Alice Cary. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 285 

5. Before he reaches his victim, he will have met the fate he so 
richly deserves. 

6. Dikes, that the hands of the farmers had raised with labor 

incessant, 
Shut out the turbulent tides. 

SEAT WORK 

Write sentences containing all the tenses of the verb to be. 



LESSON CXCII 

Tenses of the Verb To Be 

140. All the tenses of the verb to be are employed as cop- 
ula; and all alike show that some thought is predicated, — 
some action, quality, condition, or class, denoted by a word 
used with the copula to form the predicate. But, like have 
in the perfect tenses, the verb to be, as copula, not only shows 
that the thought is predicated, but also the time when that qual- 
ity, condition, or class pertains to the subject. Some of these 
uses are shown in the examples below. 

The verb to be is sometimes used to denote simply the ex- 
istence of the subject. It is not then a copula, but may be 
parsed as an intransitive verb. This use is illustrated in the 
third example. 

EXERCISE 

Tell the tense of each form of to be, and tell what each 
copula predicates : — 

1. It is twenty long years since that old ship went out of the bay. 

2. The leaves of the elm tree were dusty and brown. 

3. The joys that have been are joys still. 

4. It had been a happy morning's work. 

5. That old house was our home. 

6. My brother has been sick for several days. 

7. They had been students at the university. 

8. I shall have been a teacher thirty years next autumn. 



286 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

9. It will be delightful to meet the friends whom we have loved 
in this life. 

10. Yes, we're boys, — always playing with tongue or with pen; 
And I sometimes have asked, Shall we ever be men? 
Shall we always be youthful, and laughing, and gay, 
Till the last dear companion drops smiling away? 

— Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

SEAT WORK 

Write out all the tenses of the following verbs, placing 
those of the first two verbs in parallel columns, and likewise 
those of the second two : — 

To sit, to set, to lie, to lay. 



LESSON CXCIII 

The Verbs Sit, Set, Lie, and Lay 

141. To sit and to lie are intransitive verbs, and should 
not be used when the action is represented as being received 
by something. 

142. To set and to lay are transitive verbs, and should 
be used when the action is represented as being received by 
something. 

The examples of this lesson afford several instances of the 
improper use of these verbs. 

EXERCISE 

Tell which verb each of the verb forms comes from, name 
the tense, and correct any improper use of the verb: — 

1. After I had laid down, I remembered that I had left my pistols 
on the table. 

2. I have lain your book on the shelf. 

3. Will you sit the pitcher on the table? 

4. I was setting by her bedside. 



THE VERBS SIT, SET, LIE, AND LAY 287 

5. I counted thirteen vessels lying at anchor in the deep stream. 

6. He laid down at night, but rose not again. 

7. I will lie on the sofa. 

8. The vessel lays in St. Katherine's docks. 

9. We often set traps for mice, and gardeners set cabbage plants. 

10. I laid down under the first tree I came to. 

11. I shall go and lie down. 

12. We had set in the shade of that tree many times. 

SEAT WORK 

Write three sentences each (in various tenses) illustrating 
the correct uses of the four verbs studied in this lesson. 



LESSON CXCIV 

The Progressive Form 

143. Sometimes we wish to predicate an action, and at 
the same time show that it is continuing. For the purpose of 
showing that the action is continuing, we have the present 
active participle. This participle is formed by dropping to 
from the name form, and then adding ing. It cannot be used 
alone as a verb, for it can neither predicate action nor show 
time. So when we wish to predicate an act and represent it as 
progressing at the time referred to, we use the present active 
participle to denote the action, and put before it the copula 
to denote the time and to show that the act is predicated. 

144. This makes what is called the progressive form of 
the verb. We have already used this form many times in our 
lessons, without explaining it. 

Snow is falling. Grass is growing. Winds are blowing. 

The progressive form consists of two parts, — the present 
active participle and the copula. The participle does two 
things, — it denotes the action, and represents it as progressing. 



288 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

The copula does two things, — it shows that the act is predi- 
cated, and also the time when the act is represented as pro- 
gressing. 

The progressive form represents the action as being in- 
complete, just as the perfect tenses of the common form rep- 
resent it as being complete. 

If we wish to represent an action as progressing at the 
present time, we join the participle to the present tense of 
the copula. Thus : — 

am writing, is writing, or are writing 

If we wish to represent an action as progressing in past 
time, we join the participle to the past tense of the copula. 
Thus: — » 

was writing or were writing 

If we wish to predict that an action will be continuing in 
the future, we join the participle to the future tense of the 
copula. Thus : — 

shall be writing 

If we wish to show that an action has been progressing in 
what we regard as the present period, but that it is now com- 
pleted, we join the participle to the present perfect tense of the 
copula. Thus : — ■ 

have been zvriting or has been writing 

If we wish to show that an action was continuing in a past 
period, but was completed at a specified time in the past, we 
join the participle to the past perfect tense of the copula. 
Thus : — ■ 

had been writing 

If we wish to predict that the action will be progressing 
in the future, and that it will be completed before a specified 
time in the future, we join the participle to the future perfect 
tense of the copula. Thus : — ■ 

shall have been writing 



THE PROGRESSIVE FORM 289 

QUESTIONS 

1. When do we use the past progressive? 

2. When do we use the present progressive ? 

3. When do we use the future progressive ? The present 
perfect progressive ? The future perfect progressive ? 

4. When do we use the past perfect progressive? 

5. Of what. two parts does the progressive form consist? 

6. What two things does each part do? 

7. Can the participle predicate action? 

8. Can it show the time of the action? 

9. What do we employ for these purposes? 

10. Which part shows the state of the action? 

11. Which determines the tense? 

12. In what are all the tenses of the progressive form alike? 

13. In what are they different? 

EXERCISE 

Point out the progressive forms, tell how each is made up, 
and what each denotes : — - 

1. I shall have been attending school two years when this term 
closes. 

2. One night he had been thinking of his mother and her picture 
in the drawing-room downstairs. 

3. My friend is studying French. 

4. She will be sleeping under the daisies. 

5. Will you be coming this way again? 

6. The night was winter in its roughest mood; 
The morning sharp and clear. But now at noon, 
Upon the southern side of the slant hills, 

And where the woods fence off the northern blast, 
The season smiles, resigning all its rage, 
And has the warmth of May. The vault is blue 
Without a cloud, and white without a speck 
The dazzling splendor of the scene below. 

— Cowper. 

19 



290 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Put each of the following verbs in all the tenses, progres- 
sive form: — 

Hope, write, strive, work, think, endeavor, expect, watch, look, wait. 



lesson cxcv * 

The Progressive Form 

Do with these sentences as you were directed in the pre- 
vious lesson: — 

1. As they were working hard at the building, a frightful scream 
was heard. 

2. He saw that the floor was sinking. 

3. I am expecting my friend Thornton, who has been an officer 
in the army, and is soon going to Europe. 

4. She had been writing to her mother, and was just folding the 
letter when Ruth came in. 

5. The ghost of what was once a ship is sailing up the bay. 

6. The sun was now setting upon one of the rich, glassy glades of 
this forest. 

7. They had been fishing all night, but had caught nothing. 

8. What do you think we shall be doing at this time tomorrow? 

9. Light, fleecy clouds were flitting hurriedly across the sky. 

10. The face of Moses was lighted up with glory, for he had been 
communing with God in the mount for forty days. 

11. All day the low-hung clouds have dropped 

Their garnered fullness down ; 
All day that soft gray mist hath wrapped 
Hill, valley, grove, and town. 

SEAT WORK 

Select and copy five sentences containing progressive 
forms, and underline the full form. 

Write five sentences containing progressive forms in five 
different tenses, and underline the full forms. 



THE PASSIVE FORM 291 

LESSON CXCVI 

The Passive Form 

145. The passive form of the verb is also called the pas- 
sive voice. It is used when we wish to predicate an action, 
and show that it is received by the subject. The passive form 
consists of the passive participle and the copula, just as the 
progressive form consists of the present active participle and 
the copula. 

Examples. — The trees were blown down. Our house will be 
painted soon. 

The passive participle denotes the action, and shows that 
the subject receives it. 

The copula does just what it does in the progressive form. 

Look over the examples of Lessons 194 and 195, and change 
the transitive verbs to the passive form. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the passive forms, tell how each is made up, and 
what each denotes : — • 

1. On the shores, meanwhile, the evening fires had been kindled, 
built of driftwood thrown on the sands from the wrecks of the tempest. 

2. And the names he loved to hear 
Have been carved for many a year 

On the tomb. 

3. Many centuries have been numbered 
Since in death the baron slumbered 
By the convent's sculptured portal, 
Mingling with the common dust. 

4. Before another sun shall set, the tidings of victory will have 
been borne to every hamlet in the land. 

5. By the majestic rivers, and in the depths of the solitary woods, 
the feeble sons of the bow and arrow will be seen no more. 

6. A vessel had been wrecked on that lonely island many years 
before. 



292 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

In sentence 5, the Indians are called the sons of the bow 
and arrow on account of their close relation to these imple- 
ments as their chief means of defense in time of war, and of 
support in time of peace. 

SEAT WORK 

Write all the tenses, passive form, of the following verbs : — 
Forget, strike, see, forsake, wrap, steal, disturb. 



LESSON CXCVII 

Exercise on Verb Forms 

Classify the verb forms, tell how each is made up, and 
what each denotes : — 

1. Cool airs are murmuring that the night is near. 

2. The town had drifted behind us, and we were entering among 
the group of islands. 

3. I have been watching for you since early morning. 

4. I had been detained, in the course of a journey, by a slight ill- 
ness, from which I soon recovered. 

5. I am gazing into the twilight 

Where the dim-seen meadows lie, 
And the wind of night is swaying 
The trees with a heavy sigh. 

6. Nevermore shall her voice be heard in our happy throng. 

7. Long will he have been sleeping the sleep of death. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy sentences containing the passive form 
of the verb in all its tenses. 

2. Write two sentences each (in various tenses) of the 
verbs hear, speak, sing, one sentence in the active and one in 
the passive. 

3. Underline the active and passive forms in full. 



"THE EMPHATIC FORM 293 

LESSON CXCVIII 

The Emphatic Form 
146. Sometimes we wish to predicate an action with more 
than usual earnestness ; and for the purpose of doing this, we 
have what is called the emphatic form. 

EXAMPLES 

Common Form Emphatic Form 

I believe I do believe 

I went I did go 

This form is found only in two tenses: the present and the 
past. It consists of two parts : the name form without to, and 
the verb to do. In the two uses described below it does not 
denote emphasis. 

This form is frequently used in the present and past in- 
dicative for the purpose of asking questions, since the ordinary 
form consists of but one word, and in asking a question we 
have to put the first word of the verb before the subject. 
Thus : — ■ 

Do you believe? Did you go? 

In denying a thing we usually put the negative word after 
the first word of the verb, and so have use for the emphatic 
form just as we do in asking questions. Thus: — 

I do not believe it. I did not go. 

EXERCISE 

Find the emphatic forms, and tell how they are made up : — ■ 

1. We do not insist upon any arbitrary forms. 

2. He did not believe there was any such thing, because he had 
never seen it. 

3. What city do we inhabit? 

4. I thought of a mound in sweet Auburn 

Where a little headstone stood ; 
How the flakes were folding it gently, 
As did robins the babes in the wood. 

— James Russell Lowell. 



294 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

5. She did not set a high value upon herself, but when others 
valued her, she was glad. 

6. " I do believe you," said Alice. 

7. Everything was hers, but what did it avail now? 

8. After this visit I did not see her again till the day of Alice's 
funeral. 4 

9. And then in my dream we stood alone 

On a forest path where the shadows fell; 
And I heard again the tremulous tone, 
And the tender words of his last farewell. 

— Sarah T. Bolton. 
QUESTIONS 

What is the position of the subject in a question with 
do or did? 

What is the position of the negative in a denial with do 
or did? 

SEAT WORK 

Give the tenses of the following verbs in all the forms, 
writing out the tenses of the first : — 

To steal, to subdue, to defend. 

MODEL FOR WRITING TENSE FORMS 

Tense forms of the verb to drive 

COMMON FORM 

PRESENT TENSE 

With a subject in the 3d, sing., drives. 
With any other subject (except thou), drive. 

PAST TENSE 

Drove. 

FUTURE TENSE 

Shall drive or will drive. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

With a subject in the 3d, sing., has driven. 
With any other subject, have driven. 



THE EMPHATIC FORM 295 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

Had driven. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

Shall have driven or will have driven. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM 

PRESENT TENSE 

With a subject in the 1st, sing., am driving. 
With a subject in the 3d, sing., is driving. 
With any other subject, are driving. 

PAST TENSE 

With a subject in the 1st or 3d, sing., was driving. 
With any other subject, were driving. 

FUTURE TENSE 

Shall be driving or will be driving. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

With a subject in the 3d, sing., has been driving. 
With any other subject, have been driving. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

Had been driving. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

Shall have been driving or will have been driving. 

PASSIVE FORM 
This form differs from the progressive only in substituting 
the passive participle for the present active, and should be 
written out accordingly. 

EMPHATIC FORM 

PRESENT TENSE 

With a subject in the 3d, sing., does drive. 
With any other subject, do drive. 



296 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

PAST TENSE 

Did drive. 

(Used for Inquiry) 
Do I drive ? Does he drive? 

(Used for Denial) 
I do not drive. He does not drive. 

TENSE FORMS REQUIRED FOR " THOU " 

Common Form Progressive Form 

Present Tense : drivest art driving 

Past Tense : drovest wast driving 

Future Tense : shalt drive shalt be driving 

Pres. Perf . Tense : hast driven hast been driving 

Past Perf. Tense : hadst driven hadst been driving 

Fut. Perf. Tense : shalt have driven Shalt have been driving 

The passive form merely substitutes the passive participle 
for the present active of the progressive. 



LESSON CXCIX 

Perfect Participles 

Examine with care these forms of the perfect : — 

COMMON FORM 

Perf. Tense : have called 

Perf. Participle : having called 

PROGRESSIVE FORM 

Perf. Tense : have been calling 

Perf. Participle : having been calling 

PASSIVE FORM 

Perf. Tense : have been called 

Perf. Participle : having been called 



PERFECT PARTICIPLES 297 



QUESTIONS 



1. What is the difference between a participle and a verb? 

2. What participle assumes an action and represents it as 
present at the time of a past action predicated by the verb? 

3. What participle assumes an action and represents it as 
present at the time of a future action predicated by the verb? 
See Lesson 103. 

4. When is a participle said to be active? 

5. When passive? 

6. What tense predicates action, and represents it as, com- 
pleted at the time of mentioning it? 

7. What tense predicates action, and represents it as com- 
pleted at some time in the past? In the future? 

147. Sometimes, instead of predicating, we wish to assume 
an action and represent it as completed. The tenses that pred- 
icate action and represent it as completed are called perfect 
tenses; so the participle that assumes action and represents it 
as completed is called the perfect participle. As we need 
only one participle to represent action as being present at any 
time denoted by the verb, so we need only one perfect parti- 
ciple to represent action as completed at any time denoted by 
the verb; and as the perfect tenses have three forms, — com- 
mon, progressive, and passive, — the perfect participle has the 
same; for the perfect participle may be used to assume any- 
thing that a perfect tense can predicate. 

The perfect tenses and the perfect participle are alike in 
representing the action as completed ; so they both employ the 
same word, the past participle, to denote the action. The per- 
fect tenses employ the verb to have as auxiliary, to show that 
the act is predicated, and to show when it is completed; but 
the perfect participle must not predicate the action, and its 
time depends upon the predicate verb; so instead of employing 
the tense forms of to have as auxiliaries, it takes the pres- 



298 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

ent active participle of that verb, as seen in the illustrations 
at the head of this lesson. In the progressive and passive 
forms, the perfect tenses of any verb take the perfect tenses 
of the copula as auxiliaries ; so, in the corresponding forms, 
the perfect participle of any verb takes the perfect participle 
of the copula as auxiliary, as illustrated above. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the participles, tell how each is made up, and 
what work each one does in the sentence : — 

1. Having been riding all day in die rain, I was completely 
drenched and extremely weary. 

2. The savage beast, having finished his repast, sought repose. 

3. Having been reduced to extreme poverty, she wandered about 
from house to house, looking for work. 

4. These are the gardens of the desert, these 
The unshorn fields, boundless and beautiful, 

For which the speech of England has no name — 
The prairies. 

— Bryant. 

5. Locke was traveling on the Continent for his health when he 
learned that he had been deprived of his home and of his bread with- 
out a trial or even a notice. — Macaulay. 

6. This having learned, thou hast attained the sum 
Of wisdom. 

— Milton. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Sentence I 

1. / is the subject. 

2. Was drenched and weary is the predicate. 

3. Having been riding all day in the rain describes the 
speaker by assuming an action of him. 

4. Riding denotes the action, and represents it as pro- 
gressing. 

5. Having been shows that the action, which had been 



PERFECT PARTICIPLES 299 

progressing, was completed at the time denoted by the predicate. 

6. All day tells how long he had been riding. 

7 . In the rain tells under what circumstances he had been 
riding. 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

Having been riding is a participle, perfect progressive, 
intransitive, added to the pronoun / to denote an assumed ac- 
tion performed by the speaker. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write the perfect participles of the following verbs, in 
the three forms, — common, progressive, and passive : — 

Choose, hide, speak, take, weave. 

2. Write the analysis of sentences 2, 3, and 6, like the 
model above, and the parsing of the participle in each. 

LESSON CC 

Perfect Participles 

Do as directed in the previous lesson : — 

1. Having experienced some difficulty in making my way through 
the jungle, I was separated from my friends, and had the pleasure of 
completing my journey alone. 

2. Never having been initiated into this wild sport, I made many 
ridiculous blunders. 

3. The colonists, having gained peace and security, gave their at- 
tention to the founding of a permanent government. 

4. Having been driven from his home, he wandered among the 
mountains, subsisting on berries and wild game. 

5. Moses, having led his flock to the back side of the desert, was 
astonished at the sight of a burning bush. 

6. But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts, 
Benighted walks under the midday sun; 
Himself is his own dungeon. 

— Milton. 



300 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write in sentences the perfect participles (common, pro- 
gressive, and passive forms) of the verbs, — 

Hew, shake, steal, teach, write. 

2. Select and copy five sentences containing perfect parti- 
ciples, underlining the full form. 

LESSON CCI 

Complete Classification of Participles 

Every verb has three participles : the present, the past, 
and the perfect. 

The present participle represents the action as present at 
the time denoted by the predicate. The present participle of 
a transitive verb may be active or passive, as seen in the fol- 
lowing example : — 

Loving all and loved by all, he enjoys a happy life. 

In this sentence, loving is present active, and loved, is pres- 
ent passive. 

The past participle (except when passive) is combined 
with some other word or words, as it is in the perfect tenses 
and perfect participles. 

The past participle of a transitive verb is sometimes passive, 
as seen below : — ■ 
A fish caught in the China Sea will be exhibited in Boston. 

148. In this sentence, caught represents the action as tak- 
ing place before the time denoted by the predicate, and is called 
the past passive participle. The present passive participle, 
and the past participles, both active and passive, are written 
alike, and have to be distinguished by the manner in which 
they are used, as will be seen by comparing the following 
examples with the last one given above : — 

1. The fish caught in those waters are very large. 

2. / have caught many fine fish in that lake. 



COMPLETE CLASSIFICATION OF PARTICIPLES 301 

A perfect participle, as already noticed, may take the com- 
mon form or the progressive; and if transitive, the passive 
form also. 

Give all the participles of the following verbs : — ■ 

Speak, watch, give, teach, fall, improve. 
FORM FOR WRITING PARTICIPLES 

PRESENT PARTICIPLES PAST PARTICIPLES 

Active Passive Active Passive 

speaking spoken spoken spoken 

watching watched watched watched 

giving given given given 

PERFECT PARTICIPLES 

Common Form Progressive Form Passive Form 

having spoken having been speaking having been spoken 

having watched having been watching having been watched 

having given having been giving having been given 

EXERCISE 

Classify the participles, and tell how each form is made up, 
and what it describes: — • 

1. Having been summoned to the seat of war, he immediately 
departed. 

2. -Foiled and defeated, the British general effected a gloomy re- 
treat. 

3. Having wielded his sword with success, he retired with honest 
delight to his farm. 

4. The Indian currency consisted of a sort of long beads cut from 
the inside of shells. 

5. Having gathered up the dry pine branches, he kindled a fire. 

6. To threats the stubborn sinner oft is hard, 
Wrapped in his crimes, against the storm prepared; 
But, when the milder beams of mercy play, 

He melts, and throws his cumbrous cloak away. 

— Dry den. 



302 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Write or select and copy a sentence each illustrating the 
correct use of the forms given above in " Form for Writing 
Participles." 

lesson ecu 

Exercise on Forms 

Examine and explain all progressive, emphatic, and parti- 
cipial forms : — 

1. Having risen to a state of affluence, he neglected the humble 
friends who had aided him in former years. 

2. The patient Innuit had been watching all day on the ice for 
the appearance of Nutchook, the seal. 

3. Having failed in the object of his mission, he engaged in the 
better enterprise of exploring the southwestern coast of America. 

4. Who of us will then care for praise? 

5. Some fondly imagine that they will never die. 

6. You, my dear sir, have often been seen in the company of 
profligate men. 

7. They do not err 
Who say that when the poet dies, 
Mute Nature mourns her worshiper, 
And celebrates his obsequies. 

— Scott. 

8. None ever knew for whom the hut was built. 

9. The cars have been running to Nelson for the last three weeks. 

10. In the next town the lecturer had been making quite a stir 
among the people. 

11. Fred was the only pupil who had been absent, so all knew 
whom the teacher meant. 

12. Our object will not be accomplished till the tomahawk shall 
have been buried forever, till the wilderness and the solitary place 
shall be glad for us, and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as a rose. 
— Francis Wayland. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write an explanation of each progressive, emphatic, and 
participial form : — 

1. The gleaming swords like meteors flash. 



EXERCISE ON FORMS 303 

2. We have the promise that we shall not tread the dark valley 
alone. 

3. That he was seen elsewhere the same evening, affords no proof 
of his innocence. 

4. Having been earnestly engaged in the duties of his profession, 
he was unacquainted with the current news of the day. 

5. A glorious remnant linger yet, 

Whose lips are wet at Freedom's fountains, 
The coming of whose welcome feet 
Is beautiful upon our mountains. 

— Whit tier. 

6. But not for her has spring renewed the sweet surprises of the 
wood. — Whittier. 

2. Study the next lesson so as to be able to describe the 
different tenses and participles in all their forms. 



LESSON CCIII 

Distinguishing Shall and Will 

The use of shall and will as auxiliaries of the future tense, 
varies considerably in the different persons and kinds of 
clauses. A clear understanding of their uses will help us to 
avoid errors that are commonly made. Review Lesson 184, 
then notice these general statements and examples : — 

1. Both shall and will always refer the action of the verb 
to the future. 

2. In the first person,— 

a. Shall does nothing but denote future time — it merely 
predicts. 

b. Will also denotes future time, but in addition denotes 
the speaker's state of mind in reference to the action pre- 
dicted — it expresses an act or state of the will. 

Examples of a. — 1. I shall return soon. 2. I shall be glad to 
see you. 3. We shall arrive in Boston on Thursday. 



304 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

In the first example, shall gives no clue to whether I am 
willing or wish or am determined to return; it merely an- 
nounces my return soon. So also with we in the third example. 

In the second example, shall itself gives no clue to my state 
of mind, though glad, the adjective, denotes a happy state; 
shall merely predicts that if you come, a happy state of mind 
will result on my part. 

Examples of b. — 1. I will come if you urge it. 2. I will come 
if I can. 3. I will bring you one next time. 4. I will do it at any 
cost to myself. 

In the first example, will not only predicts, but also ex- 
presses assent or willingness. We might say with the same 
meaning, I am willing to come if you urge it. 

In the second example, will predicts, but also expresses a 
desire — a little stronger than assent. 

In the third example, will predicts, but also makes a prom- 
ise — a little more than desire. 

In the fourth example, will predicts, but also denotes de- 
termination, the strongest expression of the will. 

It is easy to see in these four examples that prediction is 
secondary, diminishing in prominence in each successive ex- 
ample ; while the state of mind is foremost in each example, 
increasing in prominence in each successive one. 

It is easy to see further that it would be useless and ridicu- 
lous to say, I will be glad to see you ; for this would mean, I 
am willing or desire or promise or am determined to be glad 
to see you, though I am not sure that I shall. 

149. Briefly, then, we may say that in the first person 
shall denotes mere futurity, and will denotes both futurity 
and volition. In many sentences either shall or will can 
be used in the first person, according to the meaning desired. 



DISTINGUISHING SHALL AND WILL 305 

EXERCISE 

1. Distinguish the meaning of the following sentences, 
first using shall, and then will: — 

1. I shall (will) meet you at the concert. 

2. We shall (will) not return under any consideration. 

3. I shall (will) never see you again. 

4. I shall (will) come as soon as I can. 

5. I shall (will) be obeyed. 

2. Fill each blank with the proper auxiliary : — 

1. I be eighteen years old next month. 

2. Do not worry, we be all right. 

3. I be glad to hear from you. 

4. I think we have rain today. 

5. I be greatly obliged to you for this favor. 

6. We not soon forget this kindness. 

7. If it does not rain soon, we have no berries. 

8. I hope we be in time to get a good seat. 

9. They say I find the people very hospitable. 

10. I fear we miss the car. 

SEAT WORK 

1. The forms should and would follow the same rules in the 
first person as shall and will. 

Copy these sentences, filling the blanks properly : — 

1. I like to go with you. 

2. I never be found in such company as that. 

3. We not succeed if we worked that way. 

4. We be pleased to have you call again. 

5. If we attempted that, we have trouble surely. 

6. If I undertook it at all, I — — do my best to succeed. 

2. In questions, will should never be used in the first person 
except to repeat a question some one has asked ; as, Will you 
sign your name to it? Will I? — Not for the world! 

Fill the blanks properly : — 

1. ' I need my umbrella? 

2. we get back in time for dinner? 

20 



306 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

3. we have a new teacher for our small children this year? 

4. I find a number on the house you have just mentioned? 

5. Where I find a drug store? 

6. Will you take; a drink with us? I? — Not if I keep my right 
mind. 

7. I bring you a book from the library on my return? 

8. we reach the school in time for the exercises? 

9. Where ■ I succeed best, do you think? 

10. I often ask myself, what compensation I receive for all 

these thankless efforts? 

lesson cciv 

Distinguishing Shall and Will 

Review the previous lesson, then note carefully the mean- 
ing of these sentences : — 

1. You shall pay the last cent. 

2. You shall hear from me tomorrow. 

3. You will find it a pleasant place. 

150. In these sentences it is seen that shall and will have 
exchanged uses as compared with those in the first 
person. 

In the first sentence, shall expresses determination by the 
speaker, the same as will may do in the first person. 

In the second sentence, shall has the force of a promise, 
as mil may in the first person. 

In the third sentence, will merely predicts, like shall in the 
first person. 

In some sentences, either shall or will may be used in the 
second person, according to the meaning desired. 

EXERCISE 

1. Distinguish the meaning of the following: — 

1. You shall (will) hear from me by return mail. 

2. You shall (will) pay every dollar you owe. 

3. You shall (will) have my lifelong gratitude for this kindness. 



DISTINGUISHING SHALL AND WILL 307 

2. Fill the blanks properly in the following: — 

1. You get there before I do. 

2. You have the rest of it when I return. 

3. You repent of this injustice. 

4. You find a surprise at every turn. 

5. You be ten your next birthday. 

INSTRUCTION 

In the second person, will may also denote determination 
or stubbornness of the subject by being emphasized. Thus: 
You will do it the slow way. 

151. In asking a question in the second person, the same 
auxiliary should be used as is required in the answer. 

Examples. — Shall you return tomorrow? (Answer) I shall if it 
does not rain. Will you lend me this book a few days? (Answer) I 
will, with pleasure. 

152. In the third person, shall and will may have the same 
uses as in the second; that is, shall denotes the authority of 
the speaker, and will merely predicts. But will may also 
denote volition, especially when a condition is expressed. 

Examples. — He shall have his reward. The president will arrive 
tomorrow. Robert can do it if he will. He will do it if you show 
him the justice of it. 

153.* In subordinate clauses used as a noun and introduced 
by that expressed or understood, the following rules apply : — 

1. If the subjects of the principal and the subordinate 
clause differ, use shall and will the same as in principal 
clauses, described above. 

2. If the subject of the subordinate clause is the same as 
that of the principal clause, use shall in all* persons in the sub- 
ordinate clause. 

Examples. — Brother says that uncle will come tomorrow. Father 
says that Albert shall go to college next year. Mother writes that she 
shall not be here till Monday. 



308 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Copy and fill each blank with the proper auxiliary : 

1. I be obliged to stay a week. 

2. Mary says she [herself] — ; — be sixteen in May. 

3. Mary says that Charles be twenty-one in June. 

4. I ■ drown ; nobody help me ! 

5. ■ you attend school this year? (Answer) I ■. 

6. you do me this favor? (Answer) I . 

7. ■ you be sorry to leave school? 

8. They say I be delighted with the scenery. 

9. I prefer this route. 

10. If I fail, I be allowed to do it over? 

11. we have time to buy our tickets? 

12. George writes that he not be able to come. 



LESSON CCV 

Synopsis of the Formation and Uses of the Different 
Tenses and Participles 

The indicative mode has six tenses which have been con- 
sidered in all their forms. In the — 

COMMON FORM 

The present tense is the simplest form of the verb, with 
such changes as may be required by the person and number 
of the subject. It is used when we wish to represent an action 
as present at the time of mentioning it. 

The past tense of regular verbs is the simplest form of 
the verb, with ed added. Irregular verbs have no regular way 
of forming their past tense, hence their name. The past tense 
is used when we wish to represent the action as past at the 
time of mentioning it. 

The future tense consists of the name form without to, 
as chief word, or basis, with one of the words shall or will, 



FORMATION AND USES OF TENSES AND PARTICIPLES 309 

prefixed as auxiliary. It has no change for the person and 
number of its subject, and is used whenever the speaker wishes 
to predict an action, state, or quality. 

The present perfect tense consists of the past participle 
as basis, with the present tense of to have for auxiliary. It is 
used when we wish to represent an action as completed at the 
time of mentioning it. 

The past perfect tense consists of the past participle as 
basis, with the past tense of to have for auxiliary. It is used 
when we wish to represent an act as completed at some point 
of time in the past. 

The future perfect tense consists of the past participle 
as basis, with the future tense of to have for auxiliary. It 
is used when we wish to predict that an action will be com- 
pleted at some point of time in the future. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM 

In this form we employ the present active participle as basis 
in all the tenses, and for auxiliary that tense of the verb to be 
which corresponds to the tense we wish to form. 

PASSIVE FORM 

This form consists of the passive participle as basis, with 
the tenses of the verb to be for auxiliaries. 

PARTICIPLES 

The present active participle is made by dropping to 
from the name form, and then adding ing. It is employed to 
assume an action, and represent it as continuing at the time 
denoted by the predicate. 

The present passive participle of a regular verb takes 
the same form as its past tense. It is employed to assume an 
action, and represent it as being received at the time denoted 
by the predicate. 

The past active participle is the same in form as the pas- 
sive, but differs from it in its use. It is seldom, if ever, used 



310 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

alone, but is employed with the tenses and present active par- 
ticiple of to have in forming the perfect tenses and perfect 
participles. 

The past passive participle differs from the present pas- 
sive only in that it represents the act denoted by it as occurring 
before the act denoted by the predicate, while the present pas- 
sive represents its act as taking place at the same time as that 
denoted by the predicate of the clause in which it is used. 

The perfect active participle has the past participle as 
basis, and the present active of to have as auxiliary. It cor- 
responds to the perfect tenses, common form, and assumes 
just what they predicate. 

The perfect progressive participle has for its basis the 
present active participle of the verb whose tense we are form- 
ing, and for auxiliary the perfect active participle of the verb 
to be. It corresponds to the perfect progressive tenses, and 
assumes just what they predicate. 

The perfect passive participle has for its basis the pas- 
sive participle of the verb whose tense we are forming, and for 
auxiliary the perfect active participle of to be. It corre- 
sponds to the perfect passive tenses, and assumes just what 
they predicate. 

From the synopsis in this lesson we may see clearly, — 

1. That the three simple tenses of the indicative mode de- 
note definite time, that their chief use is to denote time, and 
that they cover all the time there is. 

2. That the three compound tenses of the indicative mode 
also denote time, that it is the same time as that denoted by 
the simple tenses, but that the chief use of these perfect tenses 
is to denote the completed state of the action or condition ex- 
pressed by the verb. 

3. That the tenses of the participle can denote time, but 
only time relative to that denoted by the predicate. 



FORMATION AND USES OF TENSES AND PARTICIPLES 311 

SEAT WORK 

Write or select and copy one illustrative sentence each for 
all the forms described in this lesson. Underline the form 
illustrated in each sentence. 

LESSON CCVI 

Review Exercise 

Study the thought in the following selections : — 

1. Not what we think, but what we do, makes saints of us. 

2. The stag at eve had drunk his fill, 
Where danced the moon on Monan's rill, 
And deep his midnight lair had made 

In lone Glenartney's hazel shade ; 

But when the sun his beacon red 

Had kindled on Benvoirlich's head, 

The deep-mouthed bloodhound's heavy bay 

Resounded up the rocky way, 

And faint, from farther distance borne, 

Were heard the clanging hoof and horn. 

— Scott. 

3. Now was the winter gone, and the snow; and Robin the Red- 

breast 
Boasted on bush and tree it was he, it was he and no other 
That had covered with leaves the Babes in the Wood; and 

blithely 
All the birds sang with him, and little cared for his boasting, 
Or for his Babes in the Wood, or the Cruel Uncle, and only 
Sang for the mates they had chosen, and cared for the nests 

they were building. 

— Longfellow. 

4. The fowls of heaven, 
Tamed by the cruel season, crowd around 
The winnowing store, and claim the little boon 
Which Providence assigns them. 

— Thomson. 

5. At length a murmur like the winds that break 
Into green waves the prairie's grassy lake, 
Deepened and swelled to music clear and loud. 

— Whittier. 



312 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

Remark. — In sentence 1, we may supply a predicate, but 
it is probably unnecessary, for not may be regarded as giving 
a negative meaning to the predicate as applied to the first sub- 
ject, and but as showing that in its application to the second 
subject it has an opposite meaning, that is, an affirmative. 

What are the subjects of this sentence — things understood, 
or the clauses, what zve think and what we do } taken sepa- 
rately ? 

Is it the things or the doing of them that makes us saints? 

Explain the use of all the clauses in sentences 2 and 4. 

SEAT WORK 

Explain in writing the use of all the clauses in sentence 3. 



LESSON CCVII 

Potential Mode, Present and Past Tenses 

1. He contributes generously. 

2. You can assist me. 

3. The Spartans fought bravely. 

4. Henry could speak fluently. 

In the first sentence above, we predicate the real perform- 
ance of an action, and represent it as taking place in what is 
regarded as the present period. But in the second sentence, 
we simply predicate the power to act. Assist denotes the ac- 
tion, and can shows that it is the power to assist rather than 
the assistance itself that is predicated. 

The third sentence predicates the actual performance of 
an action in the past; but the fourth sentence predicates, not 
that Henry performed the act in the past, but simply that he 
had the pozver to perform it. 



POTENTIAL MODE, PRESENT AND PAST TENSES 313 

In like manner we may predicate the necessity, possibility, 
or probability of an action; the duty of acting, permission to 
act, etc. Thus : — 

1. We must go today. 3. All men should honor God. 

2. We may return tomorrow. 4. You may remain a zveek. 

154. We have seen that the indicative mode represents the 
action, quality, or condition, predicated of the subject, as actu- 
ally taking place or existing; that the imperative mode predi- 
cates a command or an exhortation to act ; and now it is seen 
that we have need of another mode for the purpose of predi- 
cating the power to act, the necessity of acting, etc. 

Potency means power; and since this mode is so often used 
to predicate power, it is called the potential mode. It has 
four tenses : the present, the past, the present perfect, and the 
past perfect. Each of these tenses consists of two parts : the 
action word, or basis, and an auxiliary. 

Note. — In some grammars the forms of the potential 
mode are classified as " potential phrases " under the indicative 
mode, but it is simpler to give them a mode of their own. 

155. The present tense and the past tense have the same 
basis, — the name form without to. The present tense employs 
one of the words, may, can, or must, as auxiliary; and the past 
tense, might, could, would, should, or ought. When ought is 
used as auxiliary, the to of the name form is retained. 

From the illustrations given below it will be seen that the 
tenses of this mode do not always denote the time indi- 
cated by their names. The present tense often denotes future 
time, and the past may denote a present truth or event, or even 
one that is to take place in the future. Thus : — 

1. / may go next week. 

2. He might become a scholar if he would. 

3. // / could sell my place today, I zvould go tomorrow. 



314 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

EXERCISE 

Examine the potential forms, and tell what each predicates, 
what the tense form is, and what time it denotes : — 

1. I can hear that voice yet. 

2. Through the trees, we could see the waters, sparkling in the sun. 

3. Two little urchins at her knee you must paint, sir. 

4. The berries we gave her, she wouldn't eat. 

5. I can hear sweet invitations 
Through the sobbing, sad vibrations 

Of the winds that follow. 

6. Joys of earth on earth must pass away. 

7. Beneath the hill you may see the mill 

Of wasting wood and crumbling stone. 

8. The gates of the city we could not see. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

I could not go yesterday, but I must go today. 

1. This sentence consists of two clauses. 

2. But shows that these clauses are of equal rank, and 
that the second is opposed to the first in meaning, the first 
saying that I could not go, and the second, that I must go. 

3. / is the subject of the first clause. 

4. Could go is the predicate ; it predicates that I have the 
power to go. 

5. Go is the name form without to, and denotes the 
action. 

6. Could shows that it is the power to act, rather than the 
action itself, that is predicated; it also indicates the past tense. 

7. Not makes the predicate deny what it would otherwise 
affirm. 

8. Yesterday tells when I could not go ; it is what remains 
of the phrase on yesterday. 

9. / is the subject of the second clause. 

10. Must go is the predicate ; it predicates a necessity for 
an action. 



POTENTIAL MODE, PRESENT AND PAST TENSES 315 

11. Go is the name form without to, and denotes the 
action. 

12. Must shows that it is the necessity for the action, 
rather than the action itself, that is predicated; it also denotes 
the present tense. 

13. Etc. 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

Could go is a verb, irreg., intr., potential mode, past tense. 
Verbs in this mode do not change their form for the person 
and number of the subject. 

Must go is a verb, irreg., intr., potential mode, present 
tense. Verbs in this mode, etc. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the parsing of the verbs in sentences 1 to 6, and the 
analysis of sentences 7 and 8. 



LESSON CCVIII 

The Present and Past Potential of To Have 

Make a careful study of each potential form in reference 
to, (1). its tense form, (2) the time it denotes, (3) what it 
predicates : — 

1. He may have a message for you. 

2. You might have the approval of all who know you. 

3. Every man should have an interest in his country's welfare. 

4. You can see the gap in the old wall still, and the stepping-stones 
in the shallow brook. 

5. We must have confidence in God's providential care, or we can 
never have perfect peace. 

6. He could have an honorable position, but he prefers the life of 
an idler. 

7. He knew that his friends would no longer have any confidence 
in his plans. 



316 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



8. All who would have the approval of God must practice self- 
denial. 

9. White blossoms are bursting 

The thickets among, 
And all the gay greenwood 

Is ringing with song ! 
There's radiance and rapture 

That naught can destroy, 
O earth, in thy sunshine, 

O heart, in thy joy! 

— Goethe. . 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy five sentences containing potential forms 
of have in the present or past, each with a different auxiliary. 

2. Compose five sentences of the same kind. 

3. Underline all the potential forms, and indicate the time 
each denotes. 

LESSON CCIX 



The Perfect Tenses of the Potential Mode 

156. The perfect tenses of the potential mode consist of 
the past participle and the verb to have, just as they do in 
the indicative; but the present and past potential of to 

have are used instead of the present and past indicative. 
Thus : — ■ 

INDICATIVE POTENTIAL 

have risen may have risen 

have given can have given 

have broken must have broken 



Present Perfect 



{ 



Past Perfect 



INDICATIVE 

' had run 
had striven 
had drawn 
had taught 
had been 



POTENTIAL 

might have run 
should have striven 
could have drawn 
would have taught 
ought to have been 



THE PERFECT TENSES OF THE POTENTIAL MODE 317 

The present tense of to have in the potential mode, as 
has been seen, is may have, can have, or must have, and its 
past tense, might have, could have, should have, would have, 
or ought to have. 

Select verbs from the preceding lessons, and form their per- 
fect tenses in the potential mode, telling how it is done, and 
why. 

EXERCISE 

Determine the tense and the time of each potential form, 
and tell what it predicates : — 

1. All the birds by the roadside laughed at him, and told him that 
the hare must have reached the forest long ago. 

2. You might have heard the cricket's trill, 
Or night birds, calling from the hill. 

3. This elegant rose might have bloomed with its owner awhile. 

4. You should have seen that long hill range, 

With gaps of brightness riven. 

5. " You should not have left the others," she said. 

6. Who would have thought it was so late? 

7. You would not have talked a year ago 

As you have talked tonight. 

8. He must have contemplated joining our party. 

9. He can have come for no other purpose. 

10. You could have gone on the evening train, and saved an entire 
day by it. 

11. He may have lost his way, and some one should search for him. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

He could have written. 

1. He is the subject. 

2. Could have written is the predicate; it predicates the 
possibility or the power to have completed an action in the past. 

3. Written denotes completed action. 

4. Could have is the past potential of to have, and shows 
that the power or possibility of completing the action existed 
in the past. 



318 ENGLISH SLANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Select and copy five, and write five, sentences containing 
potential forms in the present perfect or past perfect, each of 
the five with a different auxiliary. 



lesson ccx 

Review Exercise 

Determine the tense form and the time of each verb in the 
potential or the indicative mode, and tell what each pred- 
icates : — 

1. We may believe that to her lonely heart the voice of human 
praise was sweet. 

2. Everybody who could escape had fled from the city. 

3. There were some passages that would have served better for a 
prose pamphlet. 

4. Should not the dove so white 
Follow the sea mew's flight? 

5. He has gone at last, yet I could not see when he passed to his 
final rest. 

6. Can we regain what we have lost? 

7. Who can tell what may come upon us before another year shall 
close? 

8. Then some looked up into the sky, 

And all along where Lindis flows, 
To where the goodly vessels lie, 

And where the lordly steeple shows. 

— Jean Ingelow. 

9. It might have been the evening breeze 
That whispered in the garden trees, 
It might have been the sound of seas 

That rose and fell. 

SEAT WORK 

Rewrite the first seven sentences above, changing the po- 
tential to the indicative mode, and note how it affects the 
meaning. 



POTENTIAL MODE PREDICATING EXISTENCE, ETC. 319 

LESSON CCXI 

Potential Mode Predicating Existence, Quality, Con- 
dition, or Class 

157. The different tense forms of the verb to be, in the 
potential mode, are used, — 

a. To predicate that the existence of the thing denoted 
by the subject is possible, or that it was possible, or necessary , 
etc., as illustrated below. 

1. Such things must be. 

2. Such things might have been. 

3. It cannot be. 

b. To predicate that the existence of a quality or condi- 
tion is possible, or that it was possible, or necessary, etc. 
Thus : — 

1. He could be agreeable. 

2. He might have been rich. 

c. To predicate that the possibility, etc., for the subject to 
belong to a certain class, exists, or did exist. Thus : — 

1. You must be our guide. 

2. He might have been a scholar. 

EXERCISE 

Tell what each potential form predicates: — 

1. We should be thankful for present blessings. 

2. Happiness must be lawful or it cannot be lasting. 

3. You may be faithful without being appreciated. 

4. He might by this time have been an accomplished workman. 

5. She must have been ninety years old. 

6. He might have been famous, but he could not have been of 
good character. 

7. Gifted must be the man who is loyal to so high a vocation. 

8. Thou knowest the shadow could not be, without a light beyond. 

9. His religious opinions would have been acceptable to neither 
party. 



320 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS 

He might have been rich, 

1. He is the subject. 

2. Might have been rich is the predicate; it predicates 
the possibility of a condition. 

3. Rich is an adjective, and denotes the condition. 

4. Might have been is the past perfect potential of the 
copula, and shows that the possibility of his being in this con- 
dition existed and came to an end in the past. 

He might have been a scholar. 

1. He is the subject. 

2. Might have been a scholar is the predicate ; it predi- 
cates the possibility of his having belonged to a class called 
scholars. 

3. Scholar names one of this class. 

4. Might have been is the past perfect potential of the 
copula, and shows that the possibility of his belonging to this 
class existed and came to an end in the past. 

Such things must be. 

1. Things is the subject. 

2. Must be is the predicate ; it predicates a present neces- 
sity for the existence of the things denoted by the subject. 

3. Such, etc. 

/ think that you might be useful. 

1. / is the subject. 

2. Think is the predicate. 

3. That you might be useful, tells what I think, and is called 
the object. 

4. That introduces the clause, and shows it to be subor- 
dinate in rank. 

5. You is the subject. 



POTENTIAL MODE PREDICATING EXISTENCE, ETC. 321 

6. Might be useful is the predicate ; it predicates the pos- 
sible existence of a quality. 

7. Useful is an adjective, and denotes the quality. 

8. Might be is called the past tense of the copula, but is 
here used to show a present possibility for the existence of 
the quality. 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

You should have been more cautious. 

Should have been is a verb, irreg., cop., potential mode, 
past perfect tense. Verbs in this mode do not change their 
form for the person and number of the subject. 

Cautious is an adjective, qual., used with the copula to 
form the predicate. 

SEAT WORK 

Write two sentences for each of the following verbs, the 
first containing the verb in the present potential form, and the 
second in the past potential form : — 

Think, look, sleep, preach, wait. 

LESSON CCXII 

Progressive Form of the Potential Mode 

Write out all the tense forms of the verb to be in the po- 
tential mode. 

Now add to each of these tenses the present active parti- 
ciple of the verb to work. The result in the present will be 
like this: — ■ 

Present: May, can, or must be working. 

158. This shows that the progressive form in the po- 
tential mode consists of the present active participle and the 
copula, just as it dees in the indicative. It is used to predicate 
the possibility, necessity, etc., of a progressive action. 

21 



322 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

EXERCISE 

Describe the potential forms like the model given below : — 

1. He may have been dreaming. 

2. You should have been watching. 

3. He might have been earning something. 

4. You must be improving your time. 

5. We should be laying up treasures in heaven. 

6. I honor your judgment, dear brother, but yet cannot see the 
propriety of taking the course which you recommend. 

7. Dull would he be of soul who could pass by a sight so touching. 

8. We may be learning something each hour. 

9. He may have been sick, but the probability is that he was 
intoxicated. 

10. He must have been thinking of something else, or he would 
not have made such a remark. 

11. The plowman that turns the sod may be a Cincinnatus or a 
Washington, or he may be brother to the clod he turns. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Sentence I 

1. May have been dreaming is the predicate; it predi- 
cates the possibility of a progressive action. 

2. Dreaming denotes the action. 

3. May have been is the present perfect potential of the 
copula, and shows that the possibility of his performing this 
progressive action existed and came to an end in the present 
period. 

Remarks. — In sentence 2, should have been watching pred- 
icates a duty in regard to a progressive action. Watching de- 
notes the action, and should have been shows that his duty to 
perform the action existed and came to an end in the past. 

In sentence 4, must be shows that the necessity for per- 
forming the action exists at the time of speaking. 

In sentence 5, should be is called the past potential of the 
copula, but here shows that our duty in regard to this pro- 
gressive action exists at the present time. 



PROGRESSIVE FORM OF THE POTENTIAL MODE 323 

SEAT WORK 

Write out a description of the potential forms, like the 
model above : — - 

1. That star may have been shining for ages. 

2. We should be making preparations for our departure. 

3. It must have been a grievous offense of which Moses and Aaron 
were guilty. 

4. Our friends must be crossing the mountains by this time. 

5. That must have been a merry sight. 

6. You may be copying while I am searching for examples. 

7. The king will have been dead three days before you can reach 
the camp. 

8. You should have been giving attention to the speaker. 

9. Thoughts of what "might have been" never troubled him. 

10. We should have been ready at ten o'clock. 

11. He may have been striving to the best of his ability. 

12. We should each day of our lives be stepping heavenward. 

LESSON CCXIII 

Passive Voice of the Potential Mode 

Write out all the tense forms of Jo be in the potential mode. 

Now add to these the passive participle of any transitive 
verb; to break, for instance. 

159. By examining these forms it will be seen that the pas- 
sive voice, or passive form, of the potential mode, con- 
sists of the passive participle and the copula, just as it does in 
the indicative mode, except that we use the potential form of 
the copula instead of the indicative. 

Change the transitive verbs, in this lesson and in the pre- 
ceding one, to the passive form ; then change them to the pas- 
sive form of the indicative mode; lastly, change them to the 
indicative progressive. 

Form the passive voice of the following verbs in all the 
tenses of the potential mode : — ■ 

Deceive, teach, write, astonish, convince. 



324 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

EXERCISE 

Tell how each potential form is made up, what it denotes, 
and to what time it refers : — ■ 

1. Who can tell what crimes may have been committed in that 
dark place? 

2. Not a shadow could be seen. 

3. Much valuable information may be found in Macaulay's Essays. 

4. Some time should be given to extemporaneous speaking. 

5. He may have been deceived in regard to duty. 

6. By proper management the fort might have been taken. 

7. The college can be seen for several miles. 

8. It is not surprising that it should have escaped the search of 
strangers. 

9. The war could have been brought to a close much sooner. 

SEAT WORK 

Rewrite the sentences above, changing potential to indica- 
tive forms, and note the difference in the meaning. 

LESSON CCXIV 

Various Forms of the Potential Mode 

Do with these sentences as directed in the exercise of the 
previous lesson : — 

1. The soldiers must have been thoroughly drilled, or they would 
have fallen into disorder under such circumstances. 

2. Some may be waiting for a more favorable opportunity. 

3. Why I should have been chosen, I cannot understand. 

4. Whither, midst falling dew, 

While glow the heavens with the last steps of day, 
Far through their rosy depths dost thou pursue 
Thy solitary way? 

— Bryant. 

5. Seekest thou the plashy brink 

Of weedy lake, or marge of river wide, 
Or where the rocking billows rise and sink 
On the chafed ocean side? 

— Bryant. 



VARIOUS FORMS OF THE POTENTIAL MODE 325 

6. For I think the affections must be sadly checked and chilled, 
even in the best men, by their intercourse with the world. 

7. The good people feared that they might be driven away from 
hearth and home. 

8. This is the way in which all the work might have been done. 

Remark. — In example 5, the clause in the third line seems 
to limit some noun understood, such as spot or shore. 

SEAT WORK 

Select or write eight sentences containing potential forms, 
four in the passive and four in the active. Underline the 
full forms. 

LESSON CCXV 

Review Exercise 

Point out the potential forms, and how they affect the 
meaning of the entire sentence : — 

1. He will have been waiting for you in Paris several days before 
you arrive. 

2. A government having at its command the armies, the fleets, and 
the revenues of Great Britain, might possibly hold Ireland by the 
sword. 

3. The maiden clasped her hands, and prayed 

That saved she might be; 
And she thought of Christ, who stilled the wave 
On the Lake of Galilee. 

4. We are told that the Union must be preserved without regard 
to the means. 

5. He wasted no time in play when he should have been studying. 

6. Childhood is the bough, where slumbered 
Birds and blossoms many numbered ; — 
Age, that bough with snows encumbered. 

— Longfellow. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Copy the potential forms in the following sentences, and 
tell in writing how each affects the meaning of the sentence. 



326 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

2. Copy the. indicative forms (principal verbs) of sentences 
•4- and 6, and tell in writing how they differ in force from po- 
tential forms : — 

1. Speaking of their beauty, we must not forget what useful things 
flowers and plants are. 

2. There is a world where all are equal, — 

We are hurrying toward it fast, — 
We shall meet upon the level there 
When all the gates of death are past. 

3. Who has been putting this nonsense into your head? 

4. I saw a famous fountain, in my dream, 

Where shady pathways to a valley led ; 
A weeping willow lay upon that stream, 

And all around the fountain brink were spread 
Wide-branching trees, with dark-green leaf rich clad, 
Forming a doubtful twilight — desolate and sad. 

— Charles Lamb. 

5. O Liberty, can man resign thee, 

Once having felt thy generous flame? 

6. He would not admit me until I promised that he should have 
half of what I should get for my turbot. 



lesson ccxvi 

The Imperative Mode 

160. The imperative mode has but one tense — the present. 
It is the name form without to, and differs from the present 
indicative only in the verb to be, as seen below : — 

Indicative : You are honest. 
Imperative : Be honest. 

Observe in these two examples that the subject of the 
indicative form is expressed, while the subject of the impera- 
tive form is understood'. 



THE IMPERATIVE MODE 327 

EXERCISE 

Select the imperative forms, give the tense, and tell to 
what time they refer. 

Study the thought of sentences 6 and 7. Why are no im- 
peratives used ? No potential forms ? 

1. Be faithful. 

2. Be a gentleman. 

3. Write often. 

4. Be men, not beggars. Cancel all 

By one brave, generous action ; trust 
Your better instincts, and be just. 

5. Awake, Sir King, the gates unspar! 
Rise up and ride both fast and far! 
The sea flows over bolt and bar ! 

6. 'Twas our favorite dell, 

Cut by the trout stream through a wooded ridge : 
Above, the highway on a mossy bridge 

Strode o'er it, and below, the water fell 
Through hornblende bowlders, where the dircus flung 

His pliant rods, the berried spice wood grew, 
And tulip trees and smooth magnolias hung 

A million leaves between us and the blue. 

— Bayard Taylor. 

7. Long after every star came out, we paced 
The terrace, still discoursing on the themes 
The day had started, intermixed with dreams 

" Born of the summer night. 

— Bayard Taylor. 
SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy from the Bible ten sentences containing 
an imperative form, each of a different verb. Underline the 
imperative, and tell to what time it applies. 

2. Write five of your own of the same kind, and do like- 
wise with each. 



328 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

. LESSON CCXVII 

The Infinitive Mode 
161. The infinitive mode has two tenses: the present and 
the present perfect. The present infinitive is the name form, 
already described. Thus : — 

To be, to write, to think. 

The present perfect consists of the past participle, and the 
present infinitive of to have; just as the present perfect in- 
dicative consists of the past participle, and the present indica- 
tive of to have. 

Observe that the past participle is used in all the perfect 
tenses and perfect participles to denote a completed action. 
With this, we use, in the common form, the present indicative 
of to have, for the present perfect tense of the indicative 
mode ; the present potential of to have, for the present per- 
fect tense of the potential mode ; the present infinitive of to 
have, for the present perfect tense of the infinitive mode; and 
the present active participle of to have, for the perfect active 
participle. Thus : — 

Present Perfect Potential : may have spoken 
Present Perfect Indicative : have spoken. 
Perfect Active Participle : having spoken. 

The verb in the infinitive mode, like the participle, assumes 
or names the action, but can never predicate it. Since it can- 
not predicate anything, it has no person and number. It al- 
ways has the same form, regardless of the person and number 
of its subject, but drops to when used after certain verbs; 
such as make, feel, let, need, shall, see, zvill, may, can, must, 
might, could, would, should, etc. 

It differs from the participle in form, and in some of 
its uses. 



THE INFINITIVE MODE 329 

The infinitive may be used as an adjective, or as an adverb, 
but it is more commonly a noun. 

EXERCISE 

Give the tense of the infinitive, and tell whether it does 
the work of an adjective, an adverb, or a noun: — 

1. The time to part has come. 

2. He has come to spend the winter. 

3. To feel the fresh air of a spring morning is delightful. 

4. It is delightful to feel the fresh air of a spring morning. 

5. His feet are swift to shed blood. 

6. I hope to find it. 

7. A desire to assist you prompted the proposal. 

8. They remained to visit their friends. 

9. To do good is the duty of all. 

10. We are anxious to improve. 

11. He was unable to persuade the multitude. 

12. He that would be a hero must not fear to die. 

13. The time to plant flowers has come. 

14. I profess, sir, to have kept steadily in view the prosperity and 
honor of the whole country. 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

Sentence i 
To part is a verb, reg., intr., infinitive mode, present tense, 
and is used to tell what time is meant; it therefore does the 
work of an adjective. 

Sentence 2 
To spend is a verb, irreg., trans., active voice, infinitive 
mode, present tense, and is used to tell why he has come; it 
therefore does the work of an adverb. 

Sentence 3 
To feel is a verb, irreg., trans., active voice, infinitive mode, 
present tense ; it is used in this sentence to name an action, and 
thus becomes a verbal noun; it is the subject of the sentence, 
and therefore has the nominative use. 



330 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Copy the infinitive, and tell in writing whether it does the 
work of an adjective, an adverb, or a noun, and tell why: — 

1. Do you know what has been done to check this growing evil? 

2. With such crazy vessels and such discontented crews, all his 
heroism would have failed to insure success. 

3. My lord, I came to see your father's funeral. 

4. A desire to please characterized all his actions. 

5. Do you expect to complete your education this year? 

6. It is useless to quarrel with nature. 

7. I think I may venture to go it alone. 

8. But I would like first to explain how water freezes. 

9. The magpie readily learns to repeat a few words. 

10. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. 

11. The jury decided to acquit the prisoner. 

12. To ride leisurely through the country on a bright day in June 
is a privilege to be remembered. 



LESSON CCXVIII 

Progressive and Passive Forms of the Infinitive Mode 

162. The infinitive, like the other modes, has the progres- 
sive and passive forms. The present infinitive, progressive 
form, consists of the present active participle, and the 
present infinitive of the copula. Thus : — 

Com. : to watch Progr. : to be watching 

The present perfect infinitive, progressive form, consists 
of the present perfect infinitive of the copula, and of the pres- 
ent active participle. Thus : — 

Com. : to have watched Progr. : to have been watching 

The passive form of the infinitive mode is the same as the 
progressive, except that the passive participle is used in place 
of the present active. 



FORMS OF THE INFINITIVE MODE 33 1 

To the tenses of the copula, infinitive mode, we add the 
present active participle to make the progressive form, and 
afterwards the passive participle to make the passive form. 
Thus : — 

PRESENT PRESENT PERFECT 

Com. : to be to have been 

Progr. : to be watching to have been watching 

Pass. : to be watched to have been watched 

To be denotes existence that is present at the time referred 
to. To have been denotes existence that is past and completed 
[ended'] at the time referred to. 

To be watching denotes an action that is, was, or will be, 
progressing at the time referred to. 

To have been watching denotes an action that has been pro- 
gressing, but is completed at the time referred to. 

To be watched denotes the reception of an action at the 
time referred to. 

To have been watched represents an action as having been 
received and completed. 

Give the progressive and passive forms of the following 
verbs in the infinitive mode : — - 

To reach, to strike, to drive, to teach, to write, to scold, to reprove, 
to try, to hear, to think. 

EXERCISE 

These forms are often used as verbal nouns. Show how 
they are so used below : — 

1. It is our duty to be watching. 

2. To have been watching would have been prudent. 

3. It is not always pleasant to be watched. 

4. To have been hindered at such a time must have been unpleasant. 

5. It is sad to see such forgetfulness of duty. 

6. To be forgetful in such a cause is sinful. 

7. To retaliate is human; to forgive is divine. 

8. It is not our purpose to encourage extreme practices. 



332 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Study the following selection from Bryant. Write answers 
to these questions : — ■ 

1. To whom is the poet probably talking? 

2. Where were they ? 

3. What were they doing? 

4. What were playing about them? 

5. How does the poet represent these airs ? 

6. How does he picture them as praying? 

7. By what is the prayer accompanied ? 

Think not that thou and I 
Are here the only worshipers today 

Beneath this glorious sky, 
Mid the soft airs that o'er the meadows play; 

These airs, whose breathing stirs 

The fresh grass, are our fellow worshipers. 

See, as they pass, they swing 
The censers of a thousand flowers, that bend 

O'er the young herbs of spring, 
And the sweet odors like a prayer ascend, 

While, passing thence, the breeze 

Wakes the grave anthem of the forest trees. 

— Bryant. 



LESSON CCXIX 

Parsing and Analysis 

Infinitives may be parsed like the following one from sen- 
tence 1 of the previous lesson : — 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

To be watching is a verb, reg., intr., infinitive mode, pres- 
ent tense, progressive form ; it is used in this sentence to name 



PARSING AND ANALYSIS 333 

an action, and thus becomes a verbal noun; it explains what 
is meant by it, and is therefore put in the nominative case. 

EXERCISE 

In a similar way parse the infinitives in these sentences : — - 

1. Many shop customers were waiting to be served. 

2. This voyage deserves to be noted. 

3. We ought to be preparing for that great change which must 
soon come to us all. 

4. To have been living at such a time would have been a privilege. 

5. Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
Had in her sober livery all things clad. 

— Milton. 

6. To have been sleeping at my post when the general passed by, 
would have cost my life. 

7. It is our duty to be always seeking opportunity for doing good. 

8. " The Pink Page deserves to be hung, and you too, since you 
knew all about it," growled the king. 

9. When summer came, 
Our pastime was, on bright half holidays, 
To sweep along the plain of Windermere 
With rival oars. 

— Wordsworth. 
10. He claims to have been well instructed in the arts of war be- 
fore leaving his native land. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of the sentences below, like the model : — 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

It is our duty to be watching. 

1. It is the subject. 

2. Is our duty is the predicate ; it predicates that whatever 
is denoted by it belongs to that class of things called duties. 

3. Duty names one of the class. 

4. Our, by alluding to the speaker and those associated 
with him, shows whose duty it is. 

5. Is shows that the thought is predicated. 



334 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

6. To be watching, by naming an action, shows what is 
meant by it. 

1. The natives scarcely know what it is to see the gray head of 
an Englishman. 

2. " I should like," said the Lily, " to bloom in the palace of the 
king; to be seen by the lords and ladies in their dresses of velvet, silk, 
and gold." 

3. I cannot help thinking that he ought to have recollected the 
many fields of fight in which we have been contributors to his renown. 

4. To have broken the line of battle at that point would have 
secured the victory. 



LESSON CCXX 

The Infinitive and Other Phrases in the Predicate 

163. The infinitive is sometimes used with the copula to 

form the predicate. Thus : — ■ 

1. He is to go tomorrow. 

2. He was to have gone yesterday. 

Is to go predicates decision in regard to a future action. 

Is is the copula, and to go is the present infinitive, used 
with the copula to form the predicate. 

Was to have gone predicates decision in regard to a past 
action. 

Was is the copula. 

To have gone is the perfect infinitive, and is used with 
the copula to form the predicate. 

The phrase composed of a preposition and its object is often 
used with the copula to form the predicate. Thus : — 

1. We are in health. 

2. He is without friends. 

In the first sentence, are in health means the same as 
are well. In the second sentence, is without friends means 



PHRASES IN THE PREDICATE 335 

the same as is friendless. These two phrases therefore do the 
work of an adjective in the predicate. 

EXERCISE 

Study the use of the infinitive and prepositional phrases : — ■ 

i. You are in fault. 

2. The fiftieth anniversary of her birthday is to be celebrated 
next Tuesday. 

3. I'm to be queen of the May, mother. 

4. You will be in danger of incurring the displeasure of your 
party, I fear. 

5. I am in want of efficient help. 

6. A public dinner is to be given in honor of the president's 
return tomorrow. 

7. No trace of blood was to be found. 

8. The princess is to be instructed in the art of bread making. 

9. The general is to be in town tomorrow. 

10. One great object of education is to discipline the mind. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Sentence i 

1. You is the subject. 

2. Are in fault is the predicate. 

3. Are is the copula. 

4. In fault is used with the copula to form the predicate, 
and denotes a predicated condition of the one spoken to. 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

Sentence i 

Are is a verb, irreg., cop., indie, mode., pres. tense, 2d per., 
plu. num., to agree with its subject you. 

In is a preposition, and shows the relation of the fault to 
the person denoted by the subject. 

Fault is a noun, abstract, 3d per., sing, num., neuter gender, 
object of the relation expressed by the preposition in, and 
therefore put in the objective case. 



336 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

Sentence 2 

Is to be celebrated is a verb, reg., trans., pass, voice, 
indie, mode, pres. tense, 3d per., sing, num., to agree with its 
subject anniversary. 

Remarks. — In sentence 7, was to be found predicates pos- 
sibility ; it means the same as could be found. 

In sentence 9, is to be in town is the predicate. In town 
denotes a condition, and is to be predicates that that condition 
is expected or determined upon. Is to be is a verb, irreg., 
cop., indie, mode., pres. tense, 3d per., sing, num., to agree 
with its subject general. 

In sentence 10, to discipline is a verbal noun in the nomi- 
native case. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 2 and 10, and the parsing 
of the predicates in sentences 4 and 6. 

lesson ccxxi 

Further Study of Phrases 

Study the formation and use of the participles, infinitives, 
and prepositional phrases : — • 

1. Certain gentlemen and mariners of Norway, having considered 
all that they had heard of the Earthly Paradise, set sail to find it. 

2. Having been arrested and convicted, he was shut up in Bedford 
jail, and kept there for years. 

3. To be loitering when so much work is to be done is disgraceful. 

4. They were at variance. 

5. Having collected new force by its temporary suspension, the 
river spread devastation on every side. 

6. Principles and manners are to be discussed, and not the motives 
or characters of those who advocate them. 

7. I am in earnest. 

8. He knew where they were to be had. 

9. He has never been in possession of his father's estate. 



FURTHER STUDY OF PHRASES 337 

10. Having declined the proposal, I determined on a course suited 
to my own taste. 

11. The " Intrepid " herself was a fire ship, having been supplied 
with combustibles, a mass of which lay in barrels on her quarter-deck, 
covered only with a tarpaulin. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 1 and 11, and the parsing 
of the participles in 2 and 10. 

LESSON CCXXII 

Noun Independent With a Participle 

1. Having completed our preparations, we set out on our 

journey. 

2. The morning having dawned, we resumed our 
journey. 

3. The morning had dawned, and therefore we resumed 
our journey. 

In the first sentence above, the participle having completed, 
assumes an action of the persons represented by we, and we is 
the subject of the sentence. 

In the second sentence, having dawned assumes an action 
of the morning, but morning is not the subject of the sentence. 
It is no' part of the clause of which zve is the subject. It as- 
sumes just what the first clause of the third sentence predicates, 
and is just as independent of the clause that follows. 

In the third sentence, the first clause predicates an action 
which was the cause of our resuming our journey. 

In the second, the phrase tells the cause of our resuming 
the journey. 

164. A noun used like morning in sentence 2, is sometimes 
said to be in the nominative absolute, and the phrase con- 
sisting of the noun and its participle, with their limitations, 
if they have any, is called a phrase absolute. 



338 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

165. Punctuation. — The phrase absolute should be 
set off by the comma. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the phrases absolute, tell how each is formed, 
and what work it does : — 

1. Darkness coming upon us, we pitched our tents. 

2. My health failing, the enterprise was abandoned. 

3. The night, her task completed, stole away on lightest tiptoe. 

4. Two games had been finished, the young man losing each time. 

5. Topsy came up, her round, hard eyes glittering and blinking 
with a mixture of apprehensiveness, and their usual odd drollery. 

6. Above all, towers Chimborazo, its pure white dome piercing the 
clear azure. 

7. Still above us is a wild chaos of mountains, their sides broken 
into ravines. 

8. Descending from the summit of the pass, we come to Ambato, 
a town beautifully situated in a deep ravine. 

Remarks. — In sentence 3, her task completed tells inci- 
dentally what the night had finished before she stole away, 
and seems to intimate that she stole away because that work 
was accomplished, and she had nothing more to do. 

In sentence 4, the young man losing, etc., calls attention 
to an action that is associated with that of finishing the games. 
The act of losing is assumed of the young man, while the act 
of finishing the game is predicated. 

In sentence 5, her round, hard eyes glittering, etc., describes 
Topsy's appearance at the time of coming up. 

In sentence 6, its pure white dome piercing, etc., calls at- 
tention to an action that is intimately associated with the one 
denoted by the predicate. 

In sentence 7, their sides broken, etc., gives an additional 
thought concerning the mountains. 

In sentence 8, a town beautifully situated, etc., is apposi- 
tional, not independent. 



NOUN INDEPENDENT WITH A PARTICIPLE 339 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 2, 3, 5, and 8, like the 
model : — x 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Sentence i 

1. We is the subject, and pitched is the predicate; our tents 
tells what we pitched. 

2. Darkness coming upon us tells the cause of our pitch- 
ing tents. 

3. Darkness names a state, and coming assumes an action 
of it; upon us tells where it came. 

LESSON ccxxin 

Phrases Absolute 

166. Sometimes the action or condition denoted by the 
participle or infinitive of an absolute phrase is not to be at- 
tributed to any particular person or thing, and in such cases 
there is, of course, no noun given on which the participle or 
infinitive depends. The first examples of the exercise follow- 
ing afford illustrations of the participle and the infinitive 
absolute, that is, absolved from all dependence upon any par- 
ticular word. Note carefully their punctuation. 

167. For emphasis, we sometimes call attention to an ob- 
ject by naming it and afterwards using a pronoun to represent 
it in the clause that follows ; as, — 

1. Gad, a troop shall overtake him. 

2. His teeth, they chatter, chatter still. 

A noun so used is said to be independent by pleonasm. 
The figure of pleonasm should never be used except when em- 
phasis is required, otherwise, it becomes a blemish instead of 
an ornament in language. The fourth example following gives 
another illustration of its use. 



340 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

EXERCISE 

Give the formation and use of the phrases absolute, and 
the use of the nouns independent, found in the following 
sentences : — 

1. His conduct, generally speaking, is highly honorable. 

2. To be plain with you, I think you are much in fault. 

3. This gentleman, taking him for all in all, possessed a wonderful 
variety of knowledge. 

4. God, from the mount of Sinai, whose gray top 
Shall tremble, he, descending, will himself 

Ordain their laws. 

5. I never sought an opportunity of meeting him, to tell the truth. 

6. The maples bending o'er the gate, 

Their arch of leaves just tinted 
With yellow warmth, the golden glow 
Of coming autumn hinted. 

— « Whit tier. 

7. The sun being risen, we departed on our journey. 

8. Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. 

9. The danger being past, we entered the forest. 

10. His father being dead, the prince succeeded to the throne. 

11. Paul being a Roman, they feared to kill him. 

Remarks. — In sentences 7-11, being, the participle of 
the copula, denotes the present existence of the action or con- 
dition assumed by the word that follows. 

In sentence 11, being a Roman assumes that Paul belonged 
to a class. Roman names one of that class, and being, the par- 
ticiple of the copula, denotes the existence of Paul's relation 
to that class, at the time referred to. 

When being precedes the passive participle, the two words 
should be parsed together as a passive participle, just as the 
copula itself and the passive participle are parsed together as 
a verb in the passive voice. 

When being precedes an adjective or a noun, it must be 



PHRASES ABSOLUTE 341 

parsed alone. It belongs to the same noun as does the adjec- 
tive or noun that follows it, and is used as described above. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 4 and 6 on the preceding 
page. 

LESSON CCXXIV 

Independent Expressions 

Study the independent expressions in all the sentences, and 
analyze sentences 2 and 3 : — ■ 

1. The timber is scattered in groves and strips, the whole country 
being one vast, illimitable prairie, ornamented by small collections of 
trees and shrubs. 

2. And the young city round whose virgin zone 
The rivers like two mighty arms were thrown, 
Marked by the smoke of evening fires alone, 
Lay in the distance. 

— Whittier. 

3. This tree grows to the height of a hundred feet, its slender trunk 
surmounted by a magnificent tuft of great fan-shaped fronds, under 
which grows, in large clusters, scaly fruit, resembling pine cones. 

4. Why weep ye then for him, who, having won 

The bound of man's appointed years, at last, 
Life's blessings all enjoyed, life's labors done, 
Serenely to his final rest has passed? 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy five sentences containing absolute or 
independent expressions, underlining and explaining each of 
the latter. 

2. Write three such sentences of your own, correctly punc- 
tuated, and treat them likewise. 



342 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CCXXV 

Subjunctive Mode 

1. Whither thou goest, I will go. 

2. // thou go, see thou offend not. 

3. Though he was modest in appearance, he was brave in 
action. 

4. Though he were a slave today, he would be free to- 
morrow. 

5. He was wr\ong in action, but right in motive. 

6. If thou canst govern thyself, thou may est govern others. 

7. Were I not your friend, I would not reprove you. 

The first clause in the second sentence above is made con- 
ditional by the conjunction if. Now this conditional clause 
and the first clause in sentence 1 have the same subject and 
the same verb, but the verb in the conditional clause does not 
change its form for the person and number of its subject. 

By comparing sentences 4 and 7 with sentence 5, it will be 
seen that in the conditional clauses of those sentences, the 
past tense of the verb to be differs from its ordinary form in 
the same person and number. 

168. The peculiar forms which the verb often takes in con- 
ditional clauses, constitute what is called the subjufictive 
mode. This mode has only two tenses : the present and 
the past. 

The present tense consists of the name form (present in- 
finitive) without to. 

The past tense is, in most cases, the same as the ordinary 
past tense of the indicative mode; but in the verb to be the 
plural form is used with all subjects. 

From the examples above, and from others to follow, it 
is easy to see that the subjunctive form of the verb is not used 
to declare a fact or truth, but rather to assume, to suppose, 
to express a condition contrary to fact or possible or probable 
of fulfillment. It deals with uncertainties and unrealities. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 343 

169. The peculiarities of this mode are shown in the fol- 
lowing tables : — 

TENSE FORMS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 

Present Tense Past Tense 

1. If I love If we love 1. If I loved If we loved 

2. If thou love If you love 2. If thou loved If you loved 

3. If he love If they love 3. If he loved If they loved 

Present Tense Past Tense 

1. If I be If we be 1. If I were If we ivere 

2. If thou be If you be 2. If thou wert If you were 

3. If he be If they be 3. If he were If they were 

By the table above it will be seen that the subjunctive mode 
has no change of form except for thou, and none for that 
except in the past tense of the verb to be. 

By comparing sentences 3 and 5, at the beginning of this 
lesson, and by noticing sentence 6, it will be seen that the verb 
in a conditional clause is not always put in the subjunctive 
mode. We may, indeed, have conditional clauses with a verb 
in any tense of the indicative or of the potential mode; but 
the true subjunctive mode is found only in the two tenses rep- 
resented in the tables above. 

The verbs in such conditional clauses as are found in sen- 
tences 3 and 6 are sometimes said to be in the subjunctive 
mode, common form; but it is probably better to say that they 
are in the indicative or in the potential mode, and that the 
clause is made conditional by the conjunction that introduces it. 

Sometimes, however, the clause is made conditional by 
placing the verb, or the first word of it, before the subject, as 
seen in sentence 7. 

170. The present subjunctive usually denotes future 
time; and the past denotes present or indefinite time. 
Tense does not always show the time suggested by its name. 



344 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

EXERCISE 

Point out the tense form, the time, and the use of the verbs 
in the subjunctive: — 

1. Had I known it, I should not have gone. 

2. Were death denied, all men would wish to die. 

3. Though thou wert huge as Atlas, thine efforts would be vain. 

4. If he be but discreet, he will succeed. 

5. If I were to write, he would not regard it. 

6. If thou cast me off, I shall be miserable. 

7. If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat. 

8. If this be enthusiasm, would that all were enthusiasts. 

9. Thy brow, 
Glorious in beauty though it be, is scarred 
With tokens of old wars. 

— Bryant. 

Remarks. — In sentence 3, the subordinate clause states a 
condition notwithstanding which the efforts " would be vain." 
The subordinate clause in sentence 9 is used in a similar way. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 1, 2, 3, and 8, like the 
model : — ■ 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Sentence 4 

1. He is the subject. 

2. Will succeed is the predicate. 

3. If he be but discreet tells the condition under which 
he will succeed. 

4. If introduces the clause and shows it to be subordinate. 

5. He is the subject of the clause, and be discreet is the 
predicate. 

6. But makes the predicate emphatic; the condition af- 
firmed by the predicate is the only one we care to make. The 
other conditions of success are already certain. 



CONDITIONAL CLAUSES 345 

LESSON CCXXVI 

Conditional Clauses 

Study the conditional clauses in reference to mode, tense, 
time, and use : — 

1. If your sweet flowers remain with you, 
Fruitless your boughs must be. 

2. I will await his coming, though it be a year. ' 

3. If God required from thee an angel's deeds, 
He would have given thee an angel's powers. 

4. I watched the proceedings with considerable interest, though I 
took no active part in them. 

5. Had I the wings of a fairy, 
Up to thee would I fly. 

— Wordsworth. 

6. He will not be pardoned, unless he repent. 

171. When to use the subjunctive mode in conditional 

clauses is a perplexing question. Authors do not agree very 
well on this point. Perhaps Goold Brown's rule is as safe as 
any. It is in substance as follows : — 

1. A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in the 
subjunctive present. 

2. A mere supposition with indefinite time is best expressed 
by a verb in the subjunctive past. 

3. A conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires 
the indicative mode. 

The following sentences illustrate the rules just given: — ■ 

1. If thou forsake him, he will cast thee off forever. 

2. If it were not so, I would have told you. 

3. Though he is poor, he is contented. 

Note the punctuation of conditional clauses. 



346 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Write the following sentences correctly according to the 
rules given on the preceding page. 

1. He will not be pardoned, unless he repents. 

2. They will fine thee, unless thou offerest an excuse. 

3. I wish that I was at home. 

4. He will maintain his cause, though he lose his estate,, 

5. I shall walk out in the afternoon, unless it is rainy, 

6. Take heed lest your reputation suffers. 

7. On condition that he comes, I consent to stay. 

8. If he is but discreet, he will succeed. 

9. If thou castest me off, I shall be miserable. 

10. Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou utterest folly. 

11. If thou feltest as I do, we should decide. 

12. Though thou sheddest thy blood in the cause, it would but 
prove thee sincerely a fool. 



LESSON CCXXVII 

Conditional Clauses 

Study the conditional clauses as in the previous lesson : — 

1 If this be peace, pray what is war? 

2. Magellan declared that should they even be reduced to eat the 
leather of their shoes, he would persevere to the end. 

3. She said, " Not so : but I will know 
If there be any faith in man." 

— Tennyson. 

4. Never in the coming years, 
Though he seek for it with tears, 
Will he find so sweet a rest. 

5. But should Providence determine otherwise, should you fall in 
this struggle, should the nation fall, you will have the satisfaction of 
having performed your part. 

6. Though winter storms be nigh, 
Unchecked is that harmony. 

— Wordsworth. 



CONDITIONAL CLAUSES 347 

7. Pack your thoughts close together, and though your article may 
be brief, it will have weight, and be more likely to make an impression. 
—"How to Writer 

8. And did not pity touch my heart, 
To see how ye are all distrest, 

Till my ribs ached, I'd laugh at you. 

— Wordsworth. 
SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy seven sentences containing a variety of 
conditional clauses, underlining each clause, and telling its use. 

2. Write three such sentences of your own, with correct 
punctuation. 



LESSON CCXXVIII 

Description of the Tense Forms 

Study the description of tense forms, and put the verb work 
in one person in each form described : — ■ 

1. Common Form 
PRESENT TENSE 

Indicative : The simplest form of the verb. 
Potential: The name form without to, with may, can, or 
must as auxiliary. 

Imperative : The name form without to. 
Infinitive : The name form. 
Subjunctive: The name form without to. 

PAST TENSE 

Indicative: In all regular verbs, the present tense with ed 
added. 

Potential: The name form without to, with might, could, 
would, or should, as auxiliary. 

Subjunctive: Has the same form as the past plural in- 
dicative. 



348 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

FUTURE TENSE 

Indicative : The name form without to, with shall or will as 
auxiliary. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

Indicative : Has the past active participle for basis, and the 
present indicative of to have as auxiliary. 

Potential : The past active participle as basis, and the pres- 
ent potential of to have as auxiliary. 

Infinitive : The past active participle as basis, and the pres- 
ent infinitive of to have as auxiliary. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

Indicative : The past active participle as basis, and the past 
indicative of to havens auxiliary. 

Potential : The past active participle as basis, and the past 
potential of to have as auxiliary. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

Indicative : The past active participle as basis, and the fu- 
ture indicative of to have as auxiliary. 

2. Progressive Form 

Indicative: Has the present active participle for basis and 
the indicative tenses of to be as auxiliary. 

Potential : The present active participle as basis, and the 
potential tenses of to be as auxiliary. 

Imperative : The present active participle as basis, and the 
imperative of to be as auxiliary. 

Infinitive: The present active participle as basis, and the 
infinitive tenses of to be as auxiliary. 

Subjunctive: The present active participle as basis, and the 
subjunctive tenses of to be as auxiliary. 

3. Passive Form 

The passive form is made in the same way as the progres- 
sive form, only we use the passive participle as basis instead 
of the present active. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE TENSE FORMS 349 

4. Emphatic Form 

PRESENT TENSE 

Indicative: The name form without to, for basis, and the 
present indicative of to do as auxiliary. 

Imperative : The name form without to, for basis, and the 
imperative of to do as auxiliary. 

PAST TENSE 

Indicative: The name forr* without to, and the past in- 
dicative of to do as auxiliary. 

SEAT WORK 

Write out the verb write in the third person singular in 
each of the forms described above. 



LESSON CCXXIX 

Condensed Conjugation of the Verb 

172. A systematic arrangement of all the forms of the 
verb in its various modes and tenses, is called the conjugation 
of the verb. The diagram on page 351 is meant to show at 
a glance all the forms of the verb and its participles. 

In "each tense we give, first, the common form, and imme- 
diately below it, the progressive and the passive; also the em- 
phatic wherever it occurs. 

There are four ways of reciting from this diagram : — 

1. Following 'the top line through from left to right, we 
find all the tenses of the indicative mode, common form; and 
the second, third, and fourth lines followed through in the 
same way give in succession the progressive, passive, and em- 
phatic forms of the same mode. Proceed in like manner with 
each mode, first giving all the tenses in the common form, then 
in the progressive, etc. 



350 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

2. First give all the forms of the present tense, indicative 
mode; then all the forms of the past tense, same mode; thus 
passing on to the right until the conjugation of the verb in the 
indicative mode is made complete. Proceed in the same way 
with each successive mode until the entire conjugation has 
been given. 

3. Give the common form of the present indicative; then 
the common form of the potential present, and so down the 
left-hand column until the common form in the present tense 
of all the modes has been given. Then following down the 
second column, give the common form in the past tense of 
all the modes, and proceed in the same way with column after 
column throughout all the tenses. Then go back and go 
through the progressive form in the same way, and so on until 
all the forms have been given. 

4. Give all the forms in the present indicative, and then all 
the forms in the present potential, and so on clown the left 
hand column throughout all the modes. Proceed in the same 
way with each of the other tenses until the conjugation is 
complete. 

All the tense forms of the verb to be may be seen in the 
auxiliaries of the progressive and passive forms. 

By examining the diagram on the opposite page, it will also 
be seen that, — ■ 

1. The past participle is used as basis in the common 
form of the perfect tenses and the perfect participle. 

2. The present active participle is used as basis in all 
the tenses of the progressive form, and in the perfect progres- 
sive participle. 

3. The passive participle is used as basis in all the tenses 
of the passive form, and in the perfect passive participle. 



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352 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

4. The name form without to is used as basis in the fu- 
ture indicative and in the present and past potential. It con- 
stitutes the only tense of the imperative, and the present tense 
of the subjunctive. 

The name form complete constitutes the present tense of 
the infinitive mode. 

5. The verb to have is used as auxiliary in the perfect 
tenses and the perfect participle, common form. 

6. The verb to be is used as auxiliary in the progressive 
and passive forms. 

SEAT WORK 

Write out in all persons and both numbers all the forms 
of the indicative mode given in the first cross section of the 
diagram, according to directions given for the first method 
of reciting. Arrange your work in neat tabular form.. 



LESSON CCXXX 

Exercise on Verb Forms 

Determine the mode, tense, and time of each verb form 5 
and give the principal parts of the irregular verbs: — ■ 

1. Although one were watching him closely, it would be impossible 
to detect the fraud. 

2. If thou do these things, show thyself to the world. 

3. Though he were incased in triple armor, he could not resist 
the stroke. 

4. Our mother, while she turned her wheel 
Or run the new-knit stocking heel, 
Told how the Indian hordes came down 
At midnight on Cochecho town, 

And how her own great-uncle bore 
His cruel scalp mark to fourscore. 

— Whit tier. 



EXERCISE ON VERB FORMS 353 

5. Though these three men, Noah, Daniel, and Job, were in it, 
they should deliver but their own souls by their righteousness, saith the 
Lord God. — Ezekiel 14: 14. 

6. Had I the pinions of a dove, 
I'd fly away, and be at rest. 

7. And thither the miser crept by stealth 
To feel of the gold that gave him health, 
And to gaze and gloat with his hungry eye 

On jewels that gleamed like a glowworm's spark 
Or the eyes of a panther in the dark. 

8. If thou art worn and hard beset 
With sorrows that thou wouldst forget, 

If thou wouldst read a lesson that will keep 
Thy heart from fainting and thy soul from sleep, 
Go to the woods and hills ! No tears 
Dim the sweet look that Nature wears. 

— Longfellow. 
SEAT WORK 

Write the classification of each verb by mode and tense, 
and the principal parts of irregular verbs : — 

1. With beating heart to the task he went ; 
His sinewy frame o'er the gravestone bent; 
With bar of iron heaved amain, 

Till the toil drops fell from his brows, like rain. 

It was by dint of passing strength, 

That he moved the massy stone at length. 

I would you had been there, to see 

How the light broke forth so gloriously, 

Streamed upward to the chancel roof, 

And through the galleries far aloof ! 

No earthly flame blazed ere so bright: 

It shone like heaven's own blessed light, 

And, issuing from the tomb, 
Showed the monk's cowl, and visage pale, 
Danced on the dark-browed warrior's mail, 

And kissed his waving plume. 

— Lay of the Last Minstrel. 

2. Few leaves of Fancy's spring remain; 
But what I have I give to thee. 

— Bryant. 

23 



354 ' ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CCXXXI 

Comparison Introduced by an Adjective 

1. The pen is mightier than the sword. 

2. They were more beautiful than other women. 

3. He is worse than a thief. 

173. In the first sentence, the pen and the sword are com- 
pared in regard to the quality of might. Mightier denotes the 
quality, and by its form suggests a comparison of two objects 
in regard to that quality. It may be said to introduce the com- 
parison, and the clause " than the sword " to complete it. That 
form which the adjective takes for the purpose of denoting 
comparison is called its comparative form or comparative 
degree. The comparative form of short words is usually made 
by the addition of er, while long words employ one of the ad- 
verbs more or less for the same purpose. Thus : — ■ 

wonderful, more wonderful, less wonderful 

Some adjectives have very irregular ways of making their 
comparative form. For example : — 

good, better bad, worse 

Adverbs sometimes take the comparative form,; as, — 

1. He can write faster than I. 

2. The Jordan flows more rapidly than the Hudson. 

In the second sentence at the head of this lesson, more 
beautiful means the same as beautifuler; so more is almost as 
much a part of the adjective as the termination er. The 
women represented by the pronoun they are compared with 
other women in regard to the quality of beauty. Beautiful 
denotes the quality, and more, like the termination er, suggests 
the comparison ; the clause " than other women " completes it. 

In the third sentence, the person denoted by he is compared 
with a thief in regard to the quality of badness. Worse de- 



COMPARISON INTRODUCED BY AN ADJECTIVE 355 

notes the quality, and by its form introduces the comparison 
which is completed by the clause " than a thief." 

In the sentence, The Jordan flows more rapidly than the 
Hudson, the two streams are compared in regard to their man- 
ner of flowing. Rapidly denotes the manner, and more sug- 
gests that the flowing of the Jordan is to be compared with the 
flowing of some other stream. 

EXERCISE 

Describe the comparisons as above : — 

1. They were more frightened than we. 

2. She can read better than I. 

3. My health is better than it was when you were here. 

4. It is better to be alone than in bad company. 

5. You must bear greater troubles than these. 

6. Beneath the shadow of their boughs the ground is not more 
still than they. — Bryant. 

7. Why should an American sailor be treated worse than a dog? 

8. What is stronger than a lion? and what is sweeter than honey? 

Remarks. — If the ellipsis were supplied in the fourth sen- 
tence, it would read, " It is better to be alone than it is [good] 
to be in bad company." In this sentence, two conditions are 
compared, — that of being alone, and that of being in bad com- 
pany. To be alone names one condition, and to be in bad com- 
pany names the other ; so each of these groups should be parsed 
as a verbal noun, the first in apposition with it expressed, and 
the second in apposition with it understood. 

Note. — If after parsing these groups as a whole, it be 
thought worth while to take up the separate words, to be should 
be parsed as the infinitive of the copula (a copula that still 
denotes the existence of the condition expressed by the words 
following it, but has lost its power to predicate that condition), 
and alone as an adjective, independent, or absolute. In bad 
company is a phrase in the same relation as alone, so the prep- 
osition in has no antecedent term of relation. The meaning 



356 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

is not for any particular one to be alone or in bad company, 
but for any one, and therefore forbids the application of these 
conditions to any particular person. It may be interesting to 
notice how these groups become verbal nouns. The thought 
brought out in sentence 4 might be expressed thus : — 

When any one is alone, he is in a more favorable condition 
than when he is in bad company. 

Now if we wish to name the thought predicated in each 
subordinate clause, we must convert each predicate into a 
noun, but in order to do this we must destroy its power of 
predication. This is done by changing the copula to the par- 
ticipial or the infinitive form. This gives us being alone or to 
be alone as a name for the thought expressed by the first pred- 
icate, and being in bad company or to be in bad company, for 
the second. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select or write five sentences containing comparison, 
and write their analysis like the following model : — 
Edzvin is taller than George. 

1. Edwin is the subject; is taller is the predicate; it predi- 
cates a quality. 

2. Taller denotes the predicated quality, and by its termi- 
nation shows that two things are to be compared with refer- 
ence to this quality. 

3. Than George is an elliptical clause, and completes the 
comparison introduced by taller. 

4. Than introduces the clause, and indicates its use. 
George is the subject; is tall, understood, is the predicate. 

174. When more than two things are compared, the ad- 
jective or adverb takes what is called the superlative form. 
In short words, this form is usually made by adding est to the 
common form; but in long words, it is made by using most 
or least instead of the termination est. 

2. Select five sentences containing superlative forms. 



CLAUSES INTRODUCED BY AS 357 

LESSON CCXXXII 

Clauses Introduced by As 

By studying the examples of the last lesson we see that 
subordinate conjunctions, as well as coordinate conjunctions, 
may have correlatives. 

175. Clauses joined by subordinate correlatives are some- 
times called correlative clauses. The subordinate correla- 
tive clause is an adverbial clause whose relation to some 
adjective or adverb is shown by correlative words. 

The examples in the last lesson contain comparisons of 
inequality. In such comparisons the subordinate clause is al- 
ways introduced by than, preceded by some correlative adjec- 
tive or adverb in the comparative form. But we often wish 
to describe a thing by comparing it with something that has 
an equal amount of some quality. This is called a comparison 
of equality, and is illustrated by the examples of this lesson. 
It will be noticed that comparisons of equality employ the 
correlatives as — as or so — as. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the correlatives, and tell what things are com- 
pared on a basis of equality : — 

1. The peasant is as gay as he. 

2. Man is not so wise as his Maker. 

3. Fair is that land as evening skies. 

4. Work as long as you can. 

5. As far as the eye could reach, all was ruin and desolatioa 

6. Some think that she can sing as well as Jenny Lind. 

7. Other men, as well as poets, may be lovers of the beautiful. 

8. Our conquest there, after twenty years, is as crude as it was 
the first day. 

9. Into Hiawatha's wigwam 
Came two other guests, as silent 
As the ghosts were, and as gloomy. 



358 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

10. In many parts, the thirsty traveler discovers springs as bright 
and limpid as those of our New England hills. 

Remarks. — In sentence 2, so is used as the first term of 
the correlatives because it is preceded by the negative not. 

In sentence 7, as well as is a coordinate conjunction; its 
office is like and, only it gives greater emphasis to the relation. 
It is said to denote emphatic correspondence. The same re- 
lation might be made more emphatic by the use of correlatives. 
Thus : Not only poets, but also other men, are lovers of the 
beautiful. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Write the analysis of sentences 3 and 9 like the model. 

2. Write the parsing of the correlatives in sentences 2 and 
10 like the models : — 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Sentence I 

1. Peasant is the subject; is gay is the predicate; it predi- 
cates quality. 

2. Gay denotes the predicated quality, and as shows that 
two things are to be compared with respect to that quality. 

3. As he completes the comparison introduced by the 
first as. 

4. As introduces the clause, and indicates its use. 

5. He is the subject, and is gay, understood, is the pred- 
icate. 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

As {the first one) is a conjunctive adverb. As -a conjunc- 
tion, it is correlative to the second as, and as an adverb, it 
slightly modifies the adjective gay. 

As (the second one) is a conjunction, subordinate; it is 
correlative to the first as, and shows the relation of its clause 
to gay. 



CORRELATIVE CLAUSES WITH AS AND THAN 359 

LESSON CCXXXIII 

Correlative Clauses With As and Than 

Point out the comparisons of equality and inequality, and 
the correlatives used : — 

1. My father is seven years older than my mother. 

2. I have returned to refute a libel as false as it is malicious. 
. 3. And the brown ground bird in the glen, 

Still chirps as merrily as then. 

— Bryant. 

4. Be more anxious to acquire knowledge than to show it. 

5. The brook, 
Bordered with sparkling frostwork, was as gay 
As with its fringe of summer flowers. 

— Bryant. 

6. O ye wild winds ! a mightier power than yours, in chains upon 
the shore of Europe lies. 

7. Purple, and crimson, and scarlet, like the curtains of God's tab- 
ernacle, the rejoicing trees sank into the valley in showers of light, 
every separate leaf quivering with buoyant and burning life ; each, as 
it turned to reflect or to transmit the sunbeam, first a torch and then 
an emerald. — -John Ruskin. 

8. As the hart panteth after the water brooks, so panteth my soul 
after thee, O God. — Psalms. 

9. To teach men to be orators is little less than to teach them 
to be poets. — Goldsmith. 

10. Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them 
that fear him. — Psalms. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy four sentences, two containing a com- 
parison of equality, and two of inequality, underlining the cor- 
relatives. 

2. Write four of your own of the same kind. 



360 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CCXXXIV 

Correlative Clauses Denoting Consequence 

Study the models for analysis and parsing below, then 
point out the correlatives in the following sentences, and tell 
what work they do: — 

1. The day was so stormy that it was not prudent to venture out. 

2. He was so much injured that he could not walk. 

3. The patient had gained so much strength that he was able to 
ride out. 

4. John arrived as soon as I. 

5. Then there escaped from her lips a cry of such terrible anguish 
That the dying heard it, and started up from their pillows. 

— Longfellow. 

6. Thus fares it still in our decay; 

And yet the wiser mind 
Mourns less for what Age takes away 
Than what it leaves behind. 

— Wordsworth. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Virtue is so amiable that even the vicious admire it. 

1. Virtue is the subject, and is amiable is the predicate; 
it predicates quality. 

2. Amiable denotes the predicated quality. 

3. So indicates that a clause is to follow that will show 
the degree of the quality by telling what effect it produces. 

4. That the vicious admire it tells the effect of the 
quality, and in that way shows how much of it the subject 
possesses. 

5. That introduces the clause, and indicates its use. 

6. Vicious, or the noun limited by it, is the subject of the 
clause, admire is the predicate, and it is the object. 

7. Even gives emphasis to the assertion, and seems to sug- 
gest that it is true against what would be probable. 



CORRELATIVE CLAUSES DENOTING CONSEQUENCE 361 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

So is a conjunctive adverb. As a conjunction, it is correla- 
tive to that; as an adverb, it slightly modifies the adjective 
amiable. 

That is a conjunction, subordinate; it is correlative to so, 
and shows the relation of its clause to amiable. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentence 5, and the parsing of the 
correlatives in sentences 3 and 6. 



LESSON CCXXXV 

Transposed Correlative Clauses 
176. In most of the examples of this lesson, the subor- 
dinate clause comes first, and the correlative conjunction at 
the head of it awakens an expectation of a principal clause 
containing a correlative word that will introduce a compari- 
son. The correlative word in the principal clause introduces 
a comparison, and directs the mind backward to the subordi- 
nate clause which completes it. 

EXERCISE 

Study the models for analysis and parsing below, then study 
the other sentences in the same way : — 

1. As the door turneth upon its hinges, so doth the slothful man 
upon his bed. 

2. As a bird that wandereth from her nest, so is a man that wan- 
dereth from his place. 

3. As is your influence, so is your destiny. 

4. As the rose breathes sweetness from its own nature, so the heart 
of the benevolent man produces good works. — Dodsley. 

5. As round the reaper falls the grain, 
So the dark host around him fell, 
So sank the foes of Israel. 

— Whittier. 



362 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

6. One evening, after the sheep were folded, and we were all seated 
beneath the myrtle which shaded our cottage, my grandsire, an old 
man, was telling of Marathon and Leuctra; and how, in ancient times, 
a little band of Spartans, in a defile of the mountains, had withstood 
a whole army. — Elijah Kellogg. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Sentence i 

1. Man is the subject, doth turn is the predicate, and upon 
his bed tells where he turns. 

2. So indicates that the turning of the man is to be com- 
pared with a similar turning of something else. 

3. As the door turneth upon its hinges completes the 
comparison introduced by so. 

4. As introduces the clause and indicates its use. 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

As is a conjunction, subordinate; it is correlative to so, 
and shows the relation of its clause to doth turn. 

So is a conjunctive adverb. It is correlative to as, and 
slightly modifies doth turn. 

Remarks. — The true relation of the subordinate clause 
in sentence 2, may be seen by comparing the following equiva- 
lent expressions : — 

1. A man that wandereth from his place is like a bird that wan- 
dereth from her nest. 

2. A man that wandereth from his place is as a bird that wander- 
eth from her nest. 

3. As a bird that wandereth from her nest, so is a man that wan- 
dereth from his place. 

These sentences all express the same thought. Each predi- 
cates a condition of the man that wanderls from his place, and 
in each the condition is brought out by comparison. In the 
first, the comparison is completed by a phrase, and in the sec- 
ond and third, by a clause. This clause is substantive, for it 
is used with the copula to form the predicate. 



TRANSPOSED CORRELATIVE CLAUSES ' 363 

In the second sentence, as introduces the substantive clause 
and indicates its use. It is a conjunction, subordinate; it 
shows that its clause will denote comparison, and that it is 
subordinate in rank. 

In the third sentence, the clauses are transposed. As, in 
this sentence, is parsed just as it is in the model above. So 
is called a conjunctive adverb; it is correlative to as, and per- 
haps it slightly limits the verb. 

SEAT WORK 

Rewrite sentences 3, 4, and 5 like sentence 2 above, then 
tell in writing how the comparison is expressed in each case. 



LESSON CCXXXVI 

Correlative Clauses With The 

177. Sometimes the word the is used with an adverb in 
the comparative degree as a correlative for the purpose of 
showing corresponding increase or decrease. Thus : — 

1. The more we study, the more we thirst for knowledge. 

2. The fewer friends we claim, the fewer ties are 
broken. 

In many instances, the increase and decrease are in inverse 
relation. Thus : — • 

The less the passions are indulged, the more easily they 
are controlled. 

The, when used as above, is commonly parsed as an ad- 
verb, but it seems to have something of the nature of a con- 
junction; for the two the's are certainly correlative to each 
other, and indicate a relation between the clauses that would 
not necessarily exist if these words were omitted. . 



364 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

EXERCISE 

Point out the correlatives, and tell what each correlative 
clause expresses : — 

1. As we do to others, so shall it be done to us. 

2. The longer I use the book, the better I like it. 

3. These English parks have trees as fine and as effective as any 
of ours. 

4. O, teach him that the Christian man 

Is holier than the Jewish priest. 

— Whittier. 

5. In the lone and long night watches, sky above and wave below, 
Thou didst learn a higher wisdom than the babbling schoolmen 

know. 

— Whittier. 

6. We are so afraid of each other's doctrines, that we cannot cure 
each other's sins. 

7. What he gives thee, see thou keep; 
Stay not thou for food or sleep : 
Be it scroll, or be it book, 

Into it, knight, thou must not look; 
If thou readest, thou art lorn ! 
Better hadst thou ne'er been born. 

— Scott. 

8. The gigantic genius of Shakespeare so far surpassed the learn- 
ing and penetration of his time, that his productions were little read 
and less admired. 

Remarks. — In sentence 5, the expression sky above and 
wave below consists of two absolute phrases joined coordi- 
nately by and. Each of the nouns sky and wave is independ- 
ent with an adjective instead of a participle. Each expression 
comes from a clause having an adjective or adjective phrase 
in the predicate. 

We have seen that clauses are abridged to absolute phrases 
by destroying their power of predication. This is done by 
changing the verb to a participle whenever the verb constitutes 
the entire predicate ; but whenever the predicate consists of a 



CORRELATIVE CLAUSES WITH THE 365 

copula and a noun, the copula is changed to a participle; as, 
Paul was a Roman ; Paul being a Roman. 

Whenever the predicate consists of a copula and an ad- 
jective, we may change the copula to a participle, or we may 
drop it entirely, as in the sentence which forms the subject of 
this remark. 

In sentence 6, each is used to show that the persons rep- 
resented by we act reciprocally in being afraid of doctrines. 
Each, or the noun limited by it, is commonly regarded as being 
in apposition with we, and therefore in the nominative case ; 
while other's, or the noun limited by it, is in the possessive 
case. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 2, 5, and 6, and the parsing 
of the correlatives. 



LESSON CCXXXVII 

Correlative Clauses Denoting Purpose 

178. Correlatives sometimes stand grouped together so 
that they do not readily appear to be correlatives, yet it 

is plain, that they are so used. Examples are so that, such that, 
in order that. Sometimes the first member of the correlatives 
is not expressed, as in sentence 3. Study the models on the 
following page. 

179. Punctuation. — Correlative clauses are not usually 
separated by any mark of punctuation when the clause com- 
pleting the comparison is introduced by as or than, or when 
the clauses are closely joined by so that or such that. But 
they should be separated by the comma whenever the second 
correlative word is followed by a comma, or when the cor- 
relative words stand at the head of their respective clauses. 



366 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

Correlative clauses joined by other words than those men- 
tioned above are generally separated by the comma. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the correlatives, and show what work they do : — 

1. He visited the springs that he might improve his health. 

2. Caesar visited Britain, in order that he might conquer the in- 
habitants. 

3. Live well that you may die well. 

4. The foliage of the trees is as dense as ever, and as green. 

5. Better is the storm above it, than the quiet of the grave. 

6. The man traveled in order that he might regain his strength. 

7. We can discover nothing so sublime as the spirit of self-sacrifice. 

8. Shall your good State sink her honor that her gambling stocks 
may rise? 

9. As the tides of the sea arise in the month of September, flood- 
ing some silver stream till it spreads to a lake in the meadow, so death 
flooded life. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

Sentence 2 

1. Ccesar is the subject. 

2. Visited is the predicate. 

3. Britain names the place visited by him. 

4. In order that he might conquer the inhabitants 
tells why he visited ^Britain. 

5. In order awakens an expectation of a clause that will 
tell why Csesar visited Britain. 

6. That he might conquer the inhabitants meets the ex- 
pectation raised by in order. 

7. That introduces the clause. 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

In order is a conjunctive adverb; it is correlative to that, 
and slightly modifies visited. 

That is a conjunction, subordinate; it is correlative to in 
order, and shows the relation of its clause to visited. 



CORRELATIVE CLAUSES DENOTING PURPOSE 367 

SEAT WORK 

Select and copy one example of each kind of correlative 
clause you have studied, underlining the correlatives. 

LESSON CCXXXVIII 

Correlative Clauses 

Study the various correlative clauses, pointing out the cor- 
relatives and the work they do, noting also the punctuation : — 

1. They have given their lives, in order that the nation might live. 

2. God sent his singers upon earth 
With songs of sadness and of mirth, 
That they might touch the hearts of men, 
And bring them back to heaven again. 

— Longfellow. 

3. O lady fair, I have yet a gem which a purer luster flings 

Than the diamond flash of the jeweled crown on the lofty brow 

of kings, — 
A wonderful pearl of exceeding price, whose virtue shall not 

decay, 
Whose light shall be as a spell to thee, and a blessing on thy 

way! 

— Whit tier. 

4. The more the love of poetry is cultivated and refined, the more 
do men strive to make their outward lives rhythmical and harmonious. 

5. As I darkened the light, he cast his eyes toward the window, 
that he might catch the feeble rays of the moon. 

6. The sun is so bright that it dazzles the eyes. 

7. The fingers of the rain 
In light staccatos on the window played, 

Mixed with the flame's contented hum, and made 
Low harmonies to suit the varied strain. 

— Bayard Taylor. 

Remark. — In sentence 3, as a spell is an elliptical sub- 
stantive clause used with shall be, to form the predicate. It 
means " as a spell would be!' 



368 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Write an example of your own of each kind of correlative 
clause vou have studied, underlining the correlatives. 

LESSON CCXXXIX 

Emotional Expressions 
Wonderful are the works of God! 

This sentence not only predicates a quality of the works of 
God, but it also shows that emotion is awakened by the thought. 

In spoken language the emotion is shown chiefly by the 
tone and modulations of the voice; but in written language the 
attendant emotion is shown by the arrangement of the words, 
and by the use of the exclamation point at the close of the 
sentence. 

In the sentence given above, the word wonderful is put in 
a prominent position, because it denotes the quality that excites 
emotion. If the sentence were written thus : " The works of 
the Lord are wonderful," no emotion would be indicated. 

180. Exclamatory sentences are generally introduced by 
some word which gives notice of the emotional character of 
the thought to be expressed. These words are oh, how, 
what, and the like. 

EXERCISE 

Study the models below, then tell how emotion is expressed 
and indicated in the following sentences : — 

1. How grandly the huge waves mount toward the sky! 

2. What fearful sounds come from the dark vault ! 

3. How his gray skirts toss in the whirling gale ! 

4. What a tale of terror their turbulency tells ! 

5. How pale is the face of that young sufferer ! 

6. How delicious, how real, are such remembrances ! 

7. With what a look of longing and sorrow she turned from us ! 



EMOTIONAL EXPRESSIONS 369 

8. With what fearful eagerness the people watch for signs of 
coming rain ! 

9. With what a glory comes and goes the year ! 

10. How it tolls for the souls 

Of the sailors on the sea ! 

— T. B. Aldrich. 

11. How it clatters along the roofs, like the tramp of hoofs! 

12. What soft, fleecy clouds floated in the clear, blue sky! 

13. The youth, in the freshness and vigor of life, little realize the 
value of their abounding energy. A treasure more precious than 
gold, more essential to advancement than learning or rank or riches, 
— how lightly it is held! how rashly squandered! — Mrs. E. G. White. 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS 

How wonderfully the floiuers are made! 

1. This group of words is an exclamatory sentence; it 
predicates a thought, and shows that emotion is awakened 
by that thought. 

2. Flowers is the subject. 

3. Are made is the predicate. 

4. Wonderfully shows how the flowers are made, — that 
they are so made as to excite wonder in those who behold 
them. 

5. How shows that the manner in which they are made 
excites an unusual degree of wonder. It takes the most promi- 
nent place in the sentence in order to show what modification 
of the thought excites the emotion. 

What blessings we enjoy! 

1. This group of words is a sentence; it expresses a 
thought, and shows that emotion is excited by that thought. 

2. We is the subject. 

3. Enjoy is the predicate. 

4. Blessings names the things that are enjoyed. 

5. What seems to show that the blessings here meant are 
peculiar, and either unusually great or remarkably abundant. 

24 



370 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

It takes the first place in the sentence to show that this pe- 
culiarity of the blessings is what excites the emotion. 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

How is an adverb, added to wonderfully to show that the 
flowers are so made as to excite an unusual degree of wonder. 

What is an adjective, added to blessings to show that the 
blessings are either unusually great or very abundant, 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 1, 8, and 12, and the parsing 
of the exclamatory words. 



LESSON CCXL 

Emotion Expressed by a Single Word 

1. Alas! thy youth is dead! 

2. Ah! how cold are their caresses! 

3. Hark! I hear the tread of armed men! 

In the arrangement of the words in the first sentence there 
is nothing to indicate emotion. 

Alas denotes an emotion of sadness, and the sentence that 
follows it shows what thought awakens the emotion. 

181. The emotional character of the thought is still 
further shown to the eye by the exclamation point, and to the 
ear by the tones and modulations of the voice. 

In sentence 2, the emotion is shown by the words ah and 
how. Ah is used expressly for that purpose. It is not really 
a part of the sentence, but stands alone, and is, to a great de- 
gree at least, independent. It denotes a sudden emotion of 
grief or sadness, and the sentence that follows it explains the 
cause. How, by its prominent position in the sentence, shows 
just what modification of the thought excites the emotion. It 



EMOTION EXPRESSED BY A SINGLE WORD 371 

is the unusual degree of coldness. The quality itself is shown 
by cold, but the unusual or unexpected degree of the quality 
is definitely shown by how. 

In the third sentence, hark is the predicate of a clause with 
thou, you, or ye, understood as its subject. It exhorts the per- 
son spoken to to act; but, at the same time, indicates an. emo- 
tion of fear or surprise, without telling what awakens that 
emotion. 

EXERCISE 

Note the emotional terms, tell what general kind of emotion 
they indicate, and point out the cause of the emotion : — 

1. Alas ! the sweetness of Annette's manners was not the beaming 
of a lovely spirit. 

2. Ugh! the old men all responded from their seats beneath the 
pine trees. 

3. Hark ! distant voices ripple the silence deep. 

4. Hurrah ! there they come ! 

5. Bah ! how disgusting are such actions ! 

6. Why ! how you look ! 

7. Hush! came not faint whispers near? 

8. There ! my work is done. 

9. See ! a rocket cleaves the sky from the fort, — a shaft of light. 

10. O, wash away these scarlet sins ! 

11. Well done! thy words are great and bold. 

12. What! are these my guests? 

Remarks. — Sentences 7 and 12 are emotional and inter- 
rogative at the same time. 

Sentences 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 11, are simply declarative, and fol- 
lowed by the period. The emotion is indicated by alas, ugh, 
hark, there, see, and well done. 

Hark, hush, see, well done, are all elliptical clauses, but 
have been so much used as exclamations, that when so em- 
ployed, they seem to have nearly lost their original significa- 
tion, and are commonly parsed as interjections. 



372 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Rewrite the preceding sentences by substituting for each 
emotional term an equivalent phrase or clause embodying the 
same or a similar idea. 



LESSON CCXLI 

Elliptical Expressions of Emotion 

Oh for a lodge in some vast zvilderness! 

182. The meaning of this sentence seems to be, " Oh how 
I long for a lodge in some vast wilderness ! " The subject 
and predicate are both understood. For a lodge, etc., 
modifies the predicate understood ; it tells the tendency or di- 
rection of my longing. Oh denotes an emotion of intense ear- 
nestness, mingled, perhaps, with impatience. The cause of this 
emotion is not given. 

183. Punctuation. — Exclamatory expressions are usu- 
ally followed by the exclamation point. Interjections are 
followed by this point when emphatic ; but when they are not 
emphatic, yet require a pause after them, and are followed 
by an exclamatory clause, the comma is placed after the in- 
terjection, and the exclamation point at the end of the clause. 

Whenever the interjection is so closely connected with what 
follows as to admit of no pause, the comma is omitted. 

EXERCISE 

Study the emotional element with a view to expanding the 
elliptical expressions into their fuller meaning : — 

1. Oh for faithful men in times of such fearful wickedness! 

2. Alas ! the weakness of human nature ! 

3. What! not up yet? 

4. Farewell, a long farewell, to all my greatness! 



ELLIPTICAL EXPRESSIONS OF EMOTION 373 

5. What beautiful warm days we are having this month ! 

6. Bingo, why Bingo ! hey, hey — here, here ! 

7. A Daniel come to judgment! yea, a Daniel. — 
O wise young judge, how I do honor thee! 

— Shakespeare. 

8. O God ! I cannot bear this doubt 
That stifles breath. 

9. " Oho ! " she muttered, " ye're brave today ! " 

10. " Fie, silly bird ! " I answered, " tuck your head beneath your 
wing." 

11. men and brothers! what signts were there! 
White upturned faces, hands stretched in prayer ! 

— Whittier. 

12. Up ! up ! my friend, and quit your books. 

SEAT WORK 

Select and copy five sentences containing emotional ex- 
pressions, and write five of your own. 



LESSON CCXLII 

Quality Acquired or Discovered Through the Action 

of the Verb 

1. The leaves turn brown in autumn. 

2. The rose smells sweet. 

184. In the first sentence above, brown denotes a quality 
which the leaves acquire by the act of turning. 

In the second sentence, sweet denotes a quality of the rose, 
— a quality discovered by the act of smelling. 

In both instances, the quality is predicated. The verb pred- 
icates action, and does not represent it as being received by 
anything. So far, it is like an intransitive verb; but in addi- 
tion to doing this work, it shows that the quality denoted by 
the adjective that follows it, is predicated. In this respect it 



374 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

is like the copula. The adjective forms a part of the predicate 
as much as it does when used after the copula itself. Such 
a verb is called a copulative verb. 

The copula is used with the adjective simply to show that 
the quality is predicated ; but the copulative verb used with the 
adjective to form, the predicate does two things: it predicates 
action, and at the same time shows that some other thought 
is predicated, — some quality, action, state, or class, denoted 
by a word that follows. 

However different in other respects, all copulative verbs 
are alike in doing the work of a copula, in addition to predicat- 
ing the thought which they themselves denote. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the copulative verbs, and tell what two things 
each one predicates : — 

1. At once his eye grew wild. 

2. The eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill. 

3. Day by day her step grew weaker. 

4. Ho, young Count of Greiers ! this morning thou art ours. 

5. She appears healthier than she is. 

6. Methinks the night grows thin and gray. 

7. The muscles become strong through exercise. 

8. Level the landscape grew. 

9. The world looks old and grim. 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS 

The leaves turn brown in autumn. 

1. Leaves is the subject. 

2. Turn brown is the predicate ; it predicates an action, 
and also a quality which the subject acquires through that 
action. 

3. Turn denotes the action, and predicates it. 

4. Brown denotes the quality, and turn, like a copula, 
shows that the quality is predicated. 



QUALITY ACQUIRED THROUGH ACTION OF VERB 375 

The rose smells sweet, 

1. Rose is the subject. 

2. Smells sweet is the predicate; it predicates an action, 
and also a quality which is discovered through that action. 

3. Sweet denotes the quality. 

4. Smells denotes and predicates the action, and also shows 
that the quality is predicated. 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

Turn is a verb, reg., copulative, indicative mode, present 
tense, 3d, plu., to agree with its subject leaves. 

Brown is an adjective, qual. ; used with the copulative verb 
turn to form the predicate. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 1, 7, and 9, and the parsing 
of the copulative verb and its adjective in each. 



LESSON CCXLIII 

Copulative Verbs Used to Predicate Accompanying 

State 

As may be seen by some of the examples in this lesson, the 
adjective following the copulative verb often denotes a condi- 
tion or quality that accompanies the action or state expressed 
by the verb. 

EXERCISE 

Tell what each copulative verb predicates, and what the 
accompanying adjective denotes: — 

1. Illuming the landscape with silver, fair rose the dewy moon 
and the myriad stars. — Evangeline. 



376 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

2. But thicker and thicker a hot mist grew, 
Shot by the lightnings through and through, 
And muffled growls, like the growl of a beast, 
Ran along the sky from west to east. 

— Whittier. 

3. Their hearts beat but once, and forever lay still. 

4. And there the full broad river runs, 

And many a fount wells fresh and sweet. 

5. The grass grows green where the frost has been, 

And waste and wayside are fringed with flowers. 

6. Is this a time to be gloomy and sad, 

When our mother Nature laughs around ; 
When even the deep blue heavens look glad, 
And gladness breathes from the blossoming ground? 

— Bryant. 

Remarks. — In analyzing sentence 1, say rose fair is the 
predicate ; it predicates action and an accompanying condition. 
Fair denotes the condition, and rose, like a copula, predicates 
that condition. 

SEAT WORK 

Select and copy five examples like those in this lesson and 
in the preceding one, underlining the copulative verb once, 
and the accompanying adjective twice. 



LESSON CCXLIV 

Copulative Verbs Predicating Class 

Tell what each copulative verb predicates, and what each 
predicated expression denotes : — 

1. A region of repose it seems, 

A place of slumber and of dreams, 
Remote among the wooded hills. 

— Longfellow. 



COPULATIVE VERBS PREDICATING CLASS 377 

2. And Duncan pines a prisoner, fast within his father's towers. 

3. Then from a neighboring thicket the mocking bird, wildest of 

singers, 
Swinging aloft on a willow spray that hung o'er the water, 
Shook from his little throat such floods of delirious music 
That the whole air and the woods and the waves seemed silent 

to listen. 

— Evangeline. 

4. Nor long may thy still waters lie 
An image of the glorious sky. 

— Bryant. 

5. Sometimes it seemed a prayer, and sometimes it sounded like 
swearing. 

6. Dark and silent the water lies. 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS 

She looked a queen. 

1. She is the subject. 

2. Looked a queen is the predicate; it predicates an ac- 
tion, and through that action qualities are manifested which 
characterize a queen. 

3. Queen names one of a class. 

4. Looked denotes the action through which qualities are 
manifested that distinguish that class. 

He died an honest man. 

1. He is the subject. 

2. Died an honest man is the predicate; it predicates 
action of the subject, and also that at the time of that action 
he belonged to a class of men called honest. 

3. Man names one of a class; honest describes the kind 
of man here meant by assuming a quality of him ; died predi- 
cates, not only the action denoted by itself, but also that at 
the time of that action the subject belonged to the class of men 
described in the words that follow. 



378 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

She looked a queen: 

Queen is a noun, com., 3d, sing., fern. ; it is used with the 
copulative verb looked to form the predicate, and is therefore 
put in the nominative case. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 1 and 3, and parse the pred- 
icated expression used with the copulative verb. 

LESSON CCXLV 

Accompanying Action or State 

Examine each copulative verb, and describe the predicated 
expression accompanying it : — 

1. The level sun, like ruddy ore, 
Lay sinking in the barren skies. 

— Jean Ingelow. 

2. Here delicate snow stars, out of the cloud 
Come floating downward in airy play. 

— Bryant. 

3. Beatitude seemed written in his face. 

4. As o'er the verdant waste I guide my steed, 
Among the high rank grass that sweeps his sides 
The hollow beating of his footstep seems 

A sacrilegious sound. 

— Bryant. 

5. The scene was more beautiful far to my eye 

Than if day in its pride had arrayed it : 
The land breeze blew mild, and the azure-arched sky 
Looked pure as the spirit that made it. 

— Thomas Moore. 

6. The church of the village 
Gleaming stood in the morning's sheen. 

— Longfellow. 

7. The herd's white bones lie mixed with human mold. 



ACCOMPANYING ACTION OR STATE 379 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS 

She sat weeping. 

1. She is the subject. 

2. Sat weeping is the predicate ; it predicates posture with 
accompanying action. 

3. Weeping denotes the action, but of itself has no power 
to predicate it. 

4. Sat denotes posture and predicates it; it also acts the 
part of a copula in showing that the act of weeping is pred- 
icated. 

Fields lie deserted. 

1. Fields is the subject. 

2. Lie deserted is the predicate; it predicates two con- 
ditions. 

3. Lie denotes a condition, and predicates it; it also acts 
the part of a copula in showing that the state denoted by the 
participle deserted is predicated. 

4. Deserted denotes action received by the subject, and 
a consequent condition. 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

She sat weeping. 

Sat is a verb, irreg., copulative, ind. mode, past tense. 
Verbs in this tense do not change their form for the person 
and number of their subject. 

Weeping is a participle, present active ; it denotes accom- 
panying action, and is used with the copulative verb sat to 
form the predicate. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 4 and 5, and the parsing of 
the verbs and participles in sentences 1 and 7. 



380 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CCXLVI 

Exercise on Clauses 

Study the following selections with a view to classifying 
their clauses, pointing out their dependence and their intro- 
ductory or connecting words : — 

1. The raindrops glistened on the trees around, 

Whose shadows on the tall grass were not stirred, 
Save when a shower of diamonds, to the ground 
Was shaken by the flight of startled bird. 

— Bryant. 

2. Colder and louder blew the wind, 

A gale from the northeast, 
The snow fell hissing on the brine, 
And the billows frothed like yeast. 

— Longfellow. 

3. But courage, O my mariners ! 

Ye shall not suffer wreck, 
While up to God the freedman's prayers 
Are rising from your deck. 

— Whittier. 

4. That withered trunk a tree or shepherd seems, 

Just as the light or fancy strikes the eye. 

5. In fair wood like this, where the beeches are growing, 

Brave Robin Hood hunted in days of old ; 
Down his broad shoulders his brown locks fell flowing, 
His cap was of green, with a tassel of gold. 

— Parker. 

6. Above the new-created earth, as it lay, fair and unblemished, 
under the smile of God, " the morning stars sang together, and all the 
sons of God shouted for joy." — Mrs. E. G. White. 

7. Be thou, O God, exalted high; 
And as thy glory fills the sky, 
So let it be on earth displayed 
Till thou art here as there obeyed. 



EXERCISE ON CLAUSES 381 

SEAT WORK 

Classify in writing all the clauses, and point out their con- 
necting terms : — 

1. As the weary traveler sees 

In desert or prairie vast, 
Blue lakes, overhung with trees, 
That a pleasant shadow cast; 

Fair towns with turrets high, 

And shining roofs of gold, 
That vanish as he draws nigh, 

Like mists together rolled, — 

So I wander and wander along, 

And forever before me gleams 
The shining city of song, 

In the beautiful land of dreams. 

But when I would enter the gate 

Of that golden atmosphere, 
It is gone, and I wander, and wait 

For the vision to reappear. 

— ■ Longfellow. 

2. Suspended cliffs, with hideous sway, 
Seemed nodding o'er the cavern gray. 

3. God is our refuge and strength, 

A very present help in trouble. 
Therefore will not we fear, though the earth be removed, 
And though the mountains be carried into the midst of the sea. 



382 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CCXLVII 

Double Object Consisting of a Noun or Pronoun 
With an Adjective 

1. We thought that the man was insane. 

2. We thought the man insane. 

185. In the first sentence above, the substantive clause 
"that the man zvns insane" is the object of the verb thought. 
In the second sentence, " the man insane " is the same clause 
in an abridged form ; it means the same that it did in its com- 
plete form, and is used for the same purpose. 

. Now if we use a pronoun in place of the noun man, we shall 
see that him is required instead of he or his. The sentence 
would then read, " We thought him insane." From this we 
learn that the subject of an abridged clause is put in the ob- 
jective case whenever the clause is used to complete the mean- 
ing of a transitive verb. An abridged clause used in this way 
is sometimes called a double object. 

EXERCISE 

Find the abridged clauses, and show that they are abridged 
by expanding them, as far as you can; then analyze the 
abridged clauses : — 

1. They thought me mad. 

2. Do you believe me sincere? 

3. That experience made us more cautious. 

4. Some call him stingy. 

5. I consider the boy honest. 

6. What makes the sky so bright? 

7. Spake full well, in language quaint and olden, 

One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine, 
When he called the flowers, so blue and golden, 
Stars, that in earth's firmament do shine. 



DOUBLE OBJECT 383 

Stars they are, wherein we read our history, 

As astrologers and seers of eld ; 
Yet not wrapped about with awful mystery, 
Like the burning stars which they beheld. 

— Longfellow. 
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

We thought him insane. 

1. We is the subject. 

2. Thought him insane is the predicate; it predicates an 
action and the conclusion reached by that action. 

3. Thought denotes the action, and him insane tells what 
we thought, — the conclusion reached by thinking. 

4. Him insane is an abridged clause, and means the same 
as that he was insane. 

5. Him is the subject of the abridged clause. 

6. Insane denotes a condition of the person alluded to by 
him. 

7. Thought, like a copula, shows that the condition denoted 
by insane is predicated. 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

Thought is a verb, irregular, copulative, active voice, in- 
dicative mode, past tense. Verbs in this tense do not change 
their form for the person and number of their subject. 

Him is a pronoun, personal, 3d, sing., masc. ; it is subject 
of an abridged clause which is the object of the verb thought, 
and for this reason it is put in the objective case. 

Insane is an adjective, qualifying, used with him to com- 
plete an abridged clause. 

Remarks. — In sentence 3, made us cautious is the predi- 
cate; it predicates an action and its effect. Made denotes the 
action, and us cautious, the effect. 

Us cautious is an abridged clause, and means the same as 
that zve should become cautious; but the complete form is never 



384 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

used after the verb make. Us is the subject of the abridged 
clause, and cautious denotes a quality which the action of the 
verb causes us to acquire. 

In sentence 4, call him stingy is the predicate ; it predicates 
an action, and a belief or accusation made known through that 
action. Call denotes the action, and him stingy, the accusation. 

Him stingy is an abridged clause, and means the same as 
that he is stingy; but the complete clause is never used after 
the verb call. Him is the subject of the abridged clause, and 
stingy denotes a quality of which the person is accused through 
the action of the verb. If we should substitute say for call, 
then the complete form of the substantive clause would be 
used ; as, " Some say that he is stingy." 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of the abridged clauses : — 

1. The fruit made the boy sick. 

2. They made him joyful. 

3. Yeast renders bread porous. 

4. She hears the sea birds screech, 
And the breakers on the beach 

Making moan, making moan : 
And the wind about the eaves 
Of the cottage sobs and grieves ; 
And the willow tree is blown 

To and fro, to and fro, 
Till it seems like some old crone 
Standing out there all alone 

With her woe, 
Wringing, as she stands, 
Her gaunt and palsied hands, 
While Mabel, timid Mabel, 

With face against the pane, 
Looks out across the night, 
And sees the Beacon Light 

A trembling in the rain. 

— T. B. Aldrich. 

5. Shorter and shorter the twilight clips the days. 



ABRIDGED CLAUSE, WITH TO BE, AS, AS BEING 385 

LESSON CCXLVIII 

Abridged Clause, With To Be, As, As Being 

To be, as, or as being may be used between the subject 
and adjective of the abridged clause, but this does not affect 
the construction. These words are mere connectives, used to 
make the relation between the adjective and the subject of the 
abridged clause more prominent. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the abridged clause and the connective when 
there is one : — ■ 

1. They regard themselves as wiser than other men. 

2. We supposed them to be truthful. 

3. We regarded him as being too indolent to hold his position long. 

4. For winter maketh the light heart sad, 

And thou, thou makest the sad heart gay. 

— Longfellow. 

5. He sailed as midshipman. 

6. He turned pale on hearing that his execution was to take place 
the next day. 

7. The prisoner looked happy when he was told that his mother 
had come to see him. 

8. The black walnut logs in the chimney 
Made ruddy the house with their light. 

9. I think him dishonest. 

Remarks. — Some difference of opinion prevails in regard 
to the parsing of as when used as it is in sentence 5, above. 
Since as midshipman tells in what capacity he sailed, some re- 
gard it as an adverbial phrase and parse as as a preposition. 
But this sentence is very much like, She looked a queen, or, He 
died a hero; so. some parse midshipman as they do queen and 
hero in the sentences quoted, and as as a mere sign of ap- 
position. He sailed a midshipman conveys the same meaning. 

25 



386 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

SEAT WORK 

Write the parsing of the copulative verbs, and the analysis 
of the abridged clauses : — - 

1. But brighter than the afternoon 

That followed the dark day of rain, 

And brighter than the golden vane 
That glistened in the rising moon, 
Within, the ruddy firelight gleamed; 

And every separate windowpane, 

Backed by the outer darkness, showed 
A mirror, where the flamelets gleamed 
And flickered to and fro, and seemed 

A bonfire lighted in the road. 

— Longfellow. 

2. Yester morning I saw the lesser lake completely hidden by mist ; 
but the moment the sun peeped over the hill, the mist broke in the 
middle, and in a few seconds stood divided, leaving a broad road all 
across the lake. — Coleridge. 

3. We regard him as competent. 

4. I believe him to be honest. 



LESSON CCXLIX 

Copulative Verbs in the Passive Voice 

186. Observe that when a copulative verb is made passive, 
the predicated term denoting quality, action, state, class, etc., 
is retained as if the verb were active. For this reason it may 
be called a retained term. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the copulative verb and its retained term : — 

1. We were made more cautious by that experiment. 

2. The boy is considered honest. 

3. He is known to be guilty. 

4. The government of Edward the Fourth, though it was called 



COPULATIVE VERBS IN THE PASSIVE VOICE 387 

cruel and arbitrary, was humane and liberal, when compared with that 
of Louis the Eleventh, or that of Charles the Bold. — Macaulay's 
Essays. 

5. The small hand that trembled 

When last in my own, 
Lies patient and folded, 
And colder than stone. 

— Elizabeth Whittier. 

6. On the morrow we will meet 

With melancholy looks to tell our griefs, 
And make each other wretched. 

— Bryant. 

7. Ha ! how the murmur deepens ! 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

It was thought advisable to give up the expedition. 

1. It is the subject. 

2. Was thought advisable is the predicate ; it predicates 
an action received by the subject, and also a quality of the 
subject. 

3. Was thought denotes the action, and advisable de- 
notes a quality which the action of the verb attributes to the 
subject. 

4. To give up names the action which is represented by it. 

MODELS FOR PARSING 

Was thought is a verb, irregular, copulative, passive voice, 
indicative mode, past tense, 3d, sing., to agree with the sub- 
ject it. 

Advisable is an adjective, qualifying; used as a retained 
term with the copulative verb was thought to form the pred- 
icate. 

To give up is a verb, irregular, transitive, active voice, 
infinitive mode, present tense ; it is here used to name an action, 



I 
388 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

and thus becomes a verbal noun; it explains what is meant 
by it, and is therefore put in the same case. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 3, 5, and 6. 
Write the parsing of the copulative verb and its accom- 
panying term in sentences 1, 4, and 5. 



LESSON CCL 

Double Object Consisting of Two Nouns 

Review Lesson 247, then note the substitution of a noun 
for the adjective in the following sentences: — 

1. I think him a villain. 

2. They elected him president. * 

3. 'Twould make the earth a cheerless place 

To see no more of these. 

4. In the time of Homer, the Greeks had not begun to consider 
themselves as a distinct race. — Macaulay's Essays. 

5. Scarlet tufts 
Are glowing in the green, like flakes of fire ; 
The wanderers of the prairie know them well, 
And call that brilliant flower the Painted Cup. 

— Bryant. 

6. On the evening of the next day, at sunset, the shattered ice, 
thus frozen, appeared of a deep blue, and in shape like an agitated 
sea. — ■ Coleridge. 

7. The Latin writers looked on Greece as the only fount of 
knowledge. 

8. They called him John. 

Remarks. — In sentence 2, elected him president is the 
predicate ; it predicates an action, and the effect produced upon 
the object that receives the action. Elected denotes the action. 
Him alludes to the person that receives the action. President 



DOUBLE OBJECT CONSISTING OF TWO NOUNS 389 

names one of a class of which the person becomes a member 
through the act of being elected ; or we may say that it names 
the office which he acquires through the action of the verb. 

Him president is an abridged clause, but the complete form 
is not used after this verb. 

In, sentence 6, of a deep blue and like an agitated sea are 
adjective phrases used with the copulative verb appeared to 
form the predicate. 

In sentence 8, John is the name which the person receives 
through the action of the verb. 

Note. — Words used like president, John, etc., are also 
called predicate objective and objective complement, whether a 
noun or an adjective. 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS 

Some thought him an impostor. 

1. People or some other noun understood is the subject. 

2. Thought him an impostor is the predicate; it predi- 
cates an action, and the conclusion reached by that action. 

3. Thought denotes the action, and him an impostor, 
the conclusion. 

4. Him an impostor is an abridged clause, meaning the 
same as that he was an impostor. 

5. Him is the subject. 

6. Impostor names one of a class to which the person 
belongs that is represented by him. 

7. Thought, like a copula, shows that the fact of his be- 
longing to that class is predicated. 

Affliction made him a better man. 

1. Affliction is the subject. 

2.. Made him a better man is the predicate; it predicates 
action, and the effect of it. 



390 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

3. Made denotes the action, and him a better man, the 
effect. 

4. Him a better man is an abridged clause meaning the 
same as that he should become a better man, but the complete 
form is never used after the verb make. 

5. Him is the subject. 

6. Man names one of a class to which the person belongs 
that is represented by him. 

7. Made, like a copula, shows that the fact of his belonging 
to that class is predicated. 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

Man is a noun, com., 3d, sing., masc. ; it is used to complete 
an abridged clause, and since it names one of a class to which 
the subject of the clause belongs, it is put in the same case. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 5, 6, and 7, and the parsing 
of villain in 1, and of John in 8. 



LESSON CCLI 

Double Object 

Find and explain the double object: — ■ 

1. We knew the thief to be an Indian by his tracks. 

2. A brook came stealing from the ground. 

3. Thou'lt find Him in the evil days 

An all-sufficient strength and guide. 

4. Chains are round our country pressed, 

And cowards have betrayed her, 
And we must make her bleeding breast 
The grave of the invader. 

— Bryant. 



DOUBLE OBJECT 391 

5. Some thought him an excellent speaker, but others regarded his 
style as too showy for sound reasoning. 

6. She stood one moment statue-still, 

And, musing, spake in undertone, 
" The living love may colder grow ; 
The dead is safe with God alone." 

— Elizabeth Whittier. 

7. Grief wastes my life, and makes it misery. 

8. Our country "alls, away ! away ! 

Remarks. — In sentence 3, strength names a quality, but 
is used figuratively to denote a source of strength. This it 
may be made to do on account of the close relation existing 
between the quality and the source of it. All-sufficient as- 
sumes a quality of the source of strength here meant. 

In sentence 7, misery names a condition. His life is said 
to be misery because so much misery attends it. 

SEAT WORK 

1. Select and copy three sentences containing abridged 
clauses of various kinds, underlining the clause in each case. 

2. Write three such sentences of your own. 



LESSON CCLII 

Copulative Verbs in the Passive Voice Followed 
by a Noun 

187. Review Lesson 249, and observe in the sentences be- 
low that the retained term may be a noun, in which case it 
may very properly be called a retained object: — 

1. The Swiss and Spaniards were, at that time, regarded as the 
best soldiers in Europe. 

2. He was everywhere known as the king's favorite. 

3. Sunderland, in spite of the very just antipathy of Anne, was 
made secretary of state. — Macaulay's Essays. 



392 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

4. She haunts the Atlantic north and south, 

But mostly the mid-sea, 
Where three great rocks rise bleak and bare 
Like furnace chimneys in the air, 

And are called the Chimneys Three. 

— Longfellow. 

5. Full knee-deep lies the winter snow, 

And the winter winds are wearily sighing; 
Toll ye the church bells sad and slow, 
And tread softly, and speak low, 

For the old year lies a dying. 

— Tennyson. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

He zvas called a hero. 

1. He is the subject. 

2. Was called a hero is the predicate; it predicates an 
action received by the subject, and that by this action the sub- 
ject is put in a class called heroes. 

3. Was called denotes the action, and predicates it. 

4. Hero names one of the class to which he is said to be- 
long, and may be called the retained object. 

5. Was called, like a copula, shows that the fact of his being 
put in that class is predicated. 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

Hero is a noun, com., 3d, sing., masc. ; used with the copu- 
lative verb was called to form the predicate. It names one of 
a class to which the subject belongs, and is therefore put in 
the same case as the subject. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentences 1, 3, and 4, and the parsing 
of the retained term in 2 and 5. 



DOUBLE OBJECT INFINITIVE AND ITS SUBJECT 393 

LESSON CCLIII 

Double Object Consisting of an Infinitive and 
Its Subject 

188. Observe that the infinitive and its subject may become 
the double object: — 

1. Who caused your stern heart to relent? 

2. The doves besought the hawk to defend them. 

3. Permit your mind to reflect gravely. 

4. Fingal bade his sails to rise. 

5. Tis working with the heart and soul 

That makes our duty pleasure. 

— Phoebe Cary. 

6. It's odd how hats expand their brims as youth begins to fade, 
As if when life had reached its noon, it wanted them for shade. 

— Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

7. He demanded permission to leave the army. 

8. I heard the trailing garments of the Night 

Sweep through her marble halls ! 
I saw her sable skirts all fringed with light 
From the celestial walls ! 

— Longfellow. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

The colonel ordered the regiment to advance. 

1. Colonel is the subject. 

2. Ordered the regiment to advance is the predicate; 
it predicates action, and the contemplated effect of that action. 

3. Ordered denotes the action, and — • 

4. The regiment to advance, the anticipated result of 
that action. 

5. Regiment is the subject of the abridged clause. 

6. To advance is the infinitive of the predicate; it names 
the action which the regiment is ordered to perform. 



394 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

MODEL' FOR PARSING 

To advance is a verb, regular, intransitive, infinitive mode, 
present tense; it is here used to name an action, and thus be- 
comes a verbal noun ; it completes an abridged clause which is 
object of the verb ordered, and is therefore put in the objective 
case. 

SEAT WORK 

Select and copy five examples of the copulative verb in the 
passive voice followed by a noun, and analyze two of them. 



LESSON CCLIV 

Review Exercise 

Point out the various copulative verbs and their associated 
terms; also the double objects: — 

1. It was a hundred years ago, 

When, by the woodland ways, 
The traveler saw the wild deer drink, 
Or crop the birchen sprays. 

2. The conditions which had been imposed on him made him a 
mere vassal of France. 

3. The griefs of life to thee have been like snows 
That light upon the fields in early spring, 
Making them greener. 



• Bryant. 



4. Ghostlike and pale he wandered, 
With a dreamy, haggard eye; 
He seemed not one of the living, 
And yet he could not die. 



- Bryant. 



5. He bids us to watch and be ready, 

Nor suffer our lights to grow dim; 
That when he may come, he will find us 
All waiting and watching for him. 

6. Time makes us eagle-eyed. 

— Alice Cary. 



REVIEW EXERCISE 395 

SEAT WORK 

Study the next lesson, and write the analysis of sentences 
4 and 9, and the parsing of the words in sentences 7 and 8. 



LESSON CCLV 

Copulative Verbs in the Passive Voice Followed by 
an Infinitive 

189. Observe that the retained term with the copulative 
verb in the passive voice, may be an infinitive: — 

1. We were told to sit still. 

2. You are requested to sing. 

3. The soldiers were commanded to fire. 

4. The men of Israel were led to worship false gods. 

5. They told him to come. 

6. The Greeks were taught by Cadmus to use letters. 

7. They were ordered to leave. 

8. He bade me rejoice. 

9. To number his virtues is to give the epitome of his life. 
10. George was called to recite. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS 

The regiment was ordered to advance. 

1. Regiment is the subject. 

2. Was ordered to advance is the predicate; it predi- 
cates two actions of the subject. The first is received by the 
subject, and the second performed by it. The action performed 
is anticipated as the result of the action received. 

MODEL FOR PARSING 

To advance is a verb, regular, intransitive, infinitive mode, 
present tense ; here used as a verbal noun to name an action of 



396 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

the subject. It is taken with the copulative verb to form the 
predicate, and is therefore put in the nominative case. 

SEAT WORK 

Write the analysis of sentence 1 of the next lesson, and the 
parsing of sentence 2. 



LESSON CCLVI 

Review Exercise 

Study the various uses of the copulative verb: — 

1. Above low scarp and turf-grown wall 
They saw the fort flag rise and fall; 
And, the first star to signal twilight's hour, 

The lamp fire glimmer down from the tall lighthouse tower. 

— Tent on the Beach. 

2. He was seen to fall. 

3. In the genial breeze, the breath of God, 

The unseen springs come spouting up to light. 

4. Just above yon sandy bar, 

As the day grows fainter and dimmer, 
Lonely and lovely, a single star 

Lights the air with a dusky glimmer. 

5. During more than forty years, he was known to his country 
neighbors as a gentleman of cultivated mind, of high principles, and 
of polished address.— Macaulay's Essays. 

6. Gliding by crag and copsewood green, 
A solitary form was seen 

To trace with stealthy pace the wold, 
Like fox that seeks the midnight fold, 
And pauses oft, and cowers dismayed, 
At every breath that stirs the shade. 

— Scott. 
SEAT WORK 

Select and copy examples of various kinds of copulative 
verbs. 



REVIEW EXERCISE 397 

LESSON CCLVII 

Review Exercise 

Study the uses of the copulative verb and its various ac- 
companying terms : — 

1. And now there came both mist and snow, 
And it grew wondrous cold; 

And ice, mast high, came floating by, 
As green as emerald. 

— Samuel Taylor Coleridge. 

2. The silver, fair-browed moon rose in the purple sky, and looked 
down, calm and silent, as God looks on the scene of misery and op- 
pression, — looked calmly on the lone black man, as he sat with his 
arms folded, and his Bible on his knee. — Harriet Beecher Stowe. 

3. The wagon rolled up a weedy gravel walk, under a noble avenue 
of China trees, whose graceful forms and ever-springing foliage seemed 
to be the only things there that neglect could not daunt or alter,-- like 
noble spirits, so deeply rooted in goodness as to flourish and grow 
stronger amid discouragement and decay. — Harriet Beecher Stowe. 

4. The English seem as silent as the Japanese, yet vainer than the 
inhabitants of Siam. — Goldsmith. 

5. Then was the iron, the clay, the brass, the silver, and the gold, 
broken to pieces together, and became like the chaff of the summer 
threshing floors ; and the wind carried them away, that no place was 
found for them : and the stone that smote the image became a great 
mountain, and filled the whole earth. — Daniel 2: 35. 

6. If facilities for manual labor were provided for in connection 
with our schools, and students were required to devote a part of their 
time to some active employment, it would prove a safeguard against 
many of the evil influences that prevail in institutions of learning. — 
Mrs. E. G. White. 

SEAT WORK 

Pay a visit to some park, fruit orchard, or grove you know, 
and write a description of it. 



398 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

LESSON CCLVIII 

Review Exercise 

1. Study carefully the thought and its expression in the 
following selections. 

2. Point out any copulative verb they may contain, with its 
accompanying term. 

1. Peace to the just man's memory; let it grow 

Greener with years, and blossom through the flight 
Of ages ; let the mimic canvas show 

His calm, benevolent features ; let the light 

Stream on his deeds of love, that shunned the sight 
Of all but Heaven, and in the book of fame 

The glorious record of his virtues write, 
And hold it up to men, and bid them claim 
A palm like his, and catch from him the hallowed flame. 

— Bryant. 

2. And the crescent moon, high over the green, 

From a sky of crimson shone 
On that icy palace, whose towers were seen 

To sparkle as if with stars of their own; 
While the water fell with a hollow sound, 
'Twixt the glistening pillars ranged around. 

— Bryant. 

3. I saw the waning lights in the skies 

Blown out by the breath of morning; 
And the morn grow pale as a maid who dies, 
When her loving wins but scorning. 

— Phaebe Cary. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 399 

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 

1. The house had been large and handsome. It was built in a 
manner common at the South : a wide veranda of two stories running 
around every part of the house, into which every door opened, the 
lower tier being supported by brick pillars. 

But the place looked desolate and uncomfortable : some windows 
stopped up with boards, some with shattered panes, and shutters hang- 
ing by a single hinge, — all telling of coarse neglect and discomfort. — 
Harriet Beecher Stowe. 

2. He lay 
Reposing from the noontide sultriness, 
Couched among fallen columns, in the shade 
Of ruined walls that had survived the names 

Of those who reared them; by his sleeping side 
Stood camels grazing, and some goodly steeds 
Were fastened near a fountain ; and a man, 
Clad in a flowing garb, did watch the while, 
While many of his tribe slumbered around. 

— Byron. 

3. If I could but arouse in other minds that ardent and ever- 
growing love of the works of God in the creation, which I feel in 
myself, — if I could but make it in others what it has been to me — 

The nurse, 
The guide, the guardian of my heart, and soul 
Of all my moral being, — 
if I could open to any the mental eye which can never be again closed, 
but which finds more and more clearly revealed before it, beauty, wis- 
dom, and peace, — in the splendors of the heavens, in the majesty of 
seas and mountains, in the freshness of winds, the ever-changing lights 
and shadows of fair landscapes, the solitude of heaths, the radiant face 
of bright lakes, and the solemn depths of woods, — then, indeed, should 
I rejoice. — Wm. Howitt. 

4. Born and educated in camps, Montcalm had been carefully in- 
structed, and was skilled in the language of Homer as well as in the 
art of war. — Bancroft. 

5. The sisters were together, — together for the last time in the 
happy home of their childhood. The window before them was thrown 
open, and the shadows of evening were slowly passing from each 
familiar outline on which the gazers looked. They were both young 
and fair; and one, the elder, wore that pale wreath the maiden wears 



400 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

but once. The accustomed smile had forsaken her lip now, and the 
orange blossoms were scarcely whiter than the cheek they shaded. The 
sisters' hands were clasped in each other, and they sat silently watching 
the gradual brightening of the crescent moon, and the coming forth, 
one by one, of the stars. Not a cloud was floating in the quiet sky; 
the light wind hardly stirred the young leaves, and the air was fraught 
with the fragrance of early spring flowers. — Jane Worthington. 

6. There are some hearts like wells, green mossed and deep 

As ever Summer saw; 
And cool their water is, — yea, cool and sweet ; — 

But you must come to draw ; 
They hoard not, yet they rest in calm content, 

And not unsought will give ; 
They can be quiet with their wealth unspent, 

So self-contained they live. 

And there are some like springs, that bubbling burst 

To follow dusty ways, 
And run with offered cup to quench his thirst 

Where the tired traveler stays; 
That never ask the meadows if they want 

What is their joy to give; — 
Unasked, their lives to other life they grant, 

So self-bestowed they live ! 

And One is like the ocean, deep and wide, 

Wherein all waters fall; 
That girdles the broad earth, and draws the tide, 

Feeding and bearing all; 
That broods the mists, that sends the clouds abroad, 

That takes, again to give; 
Even the great and loving heart of God, 

Whereby all love doth live. 

— Caroline Spencer. 

7. What if there were a springtime of blossoming but once in a 
hundred years ! How would men look forward to it, and old men, 
who had beheld its wonders, tell the story to their children, how once 
all the homely trees became beautiful, and earth was covered with 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 401 

freshness and new growth ! How would young men hope to become 
old, that they might see so glad a sight ! And when beheld, the aged 
man would say, " Lord, now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace, 
for mine eyes have seen thy salvation.'' — Theodore Parker. 

8. She filled the helm, and back she hied, 
And with surprise and joy espied 

A monk supporting Marmion's head; 
A pious man, whom duty brought 
To dubious verge of battle fought, 

To shrive the dying, bless the dead. 
Deep drank Lord Marmion of the wave. 

— Walter Scott. 

9. We sit around the fireside, and the angel feared and dreaded 
by us all comes in, and one is taken from our midst. Hands that have 
caressed us, locks that have fallen over us like a bath of beauty, are 
hidden beneath shroud folds. We see the steep edges of the grave, 
and hear the heavy rumble of the clods ; and, in the burst of pas- 
sionate grief, it seems that we can never still the crying of our hearts. 
But the days rise and set, dimly at first; seasons come and go; and 
little by little the weight rises from the heart, and the shadows drift 
from before the eyes, till we feel again the spirit of gladness, and see 
again the old beauty of the world. — Alice Cary. 

10. Dark as the forest leaves that strew the ground, 
The Indian hunter here his shelter found ; 
Here cut his bow and shaped his arrows true, 
Here built his wigwam and his bark canoe, 
Speared the quick salmon leaping up the fall, 
And slew the deer without the rifle ball. 

— John G. Brainard. 

11. On one side, the bank is almost on a level with the water, and 
there the quiet congregation of trees stood, with feet in the flood, and 
fringed with foliage down to its very surface. Vines here and there 
twine themselves about bushes or aspens or alder trees, and hang their 
clusters, though scanty and infrequent this season, so that I can reach 
them from my boat. I scarcely remember a scene of more complete 
and lovely seclusion than the passage of the river through this wood. 
— Hawthorne. 

26 



402 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

12. All day, as day is reckoned on the earth, 
I've wandered in these dim and awful aisles, 
Shut from the blue and breezy dome of heaven. 

And now 
I'll sit me down upon yon broken rock, 
To muse upon the strange and solemn things 
Of this mysterious realm. 

— Prentice. 

13. . i . Beautiful 
Are all the thousand snow-white gems that lie 
In these mysterious chambers, gleaming out 
Amid the melancholy gloom ; and wild 

These rocky hills and cliffs and gulfs ; but far 
More beautiful and wild, the things that greet 
The wanderer in our world of light, — the stars 
Floating on high, like islands of the blest; 
The autumn sunsets glowing like the gate 
Of far-off Paradise ; the gorgeous clouds 
On which the glories of the earth and sky 
Meet, and commingle ; earth's unnumbered flowers 
All turning up their gentle eyes to heaven ; 
The birds, with bright wings glancing in the sun, 
Filling the air with rainbow miniatures ; 
The green old forests surging in the gale; 
The everlasting mountains, on whose peaks 
The setting sun burns like an altar flame. 

— Prentice. 

14. There is a distinction between recreation and amusement. 
Recreation, when true to its name, re-creation, tends to strengthen and 
build up. Calling us aside from our ordinary cares and occupations, 
it affords refreshment for mind and body, and thus enables us to re- 
turn with new vigor to the earnest work of life. Amusement, on the 
other hand, is sought for the sake of pleasure, and is often carried to 
excess ; it absorbs the energies that are required for useful work, and 
thus proves a hindrance to life's true success. — Mrs. E. G. White. 

15. There needs no other proof that happiness is the most whole- 
some moral atmosphere than the elevation of soul, the religious aspira- 
tion, which attends the first sober certainty of true love. There is 
much of this religious aspiration amidst all warmth of virtuous af- 
fection. There is a vivid love of God in the child that lays its cheek 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 403 

against the cheek of its mother, and clasps its arms about her neck. 
God is thanked — perhaps unconsciously — for the brightness of his 
earth, on summer evenings, when a brother and sister, who have long 
been parted, pour out their heart stores to each other, and feel their 
course of thought brightening as it runs. When the aged parent hears 
of the honors his children have won, or looks round upon their in- 
nocent faces as the glory of his decline, his mind reverts to Him who 
in them prescribed the purpose of his life, and bestowed its grace. — 
Harriet Martineau. 

16. Lo, the winter is past, 
The rain is over and gone ; 

The flowers appear on the earth ; 

The time of the singing of birds is come, 

And the voice of the turtle is heard in our land; 

The fig tree ripeneth her green figs, 

And the vines are in blossom, 

They give forth their fragrance. 

Arise, my love, my fair one, and come away. 

17. The village was buried in deep sleep, but the woods were filled 
with large parrots, which, being awakened, made a prodigious clamor. 
The Indians, however, thinking the Spaniards all destroyed, paid no 
attention to these noises. It was not until their houses were assailed, 
and wrapped in flames, that they took alarm. They rushed forth, some 
with arms, some weaponless, but were received at their doors by the 
exasperated Spaniards, and either slain on the spot, or driven back into 
the fire. Women fled wildly forth with children in their arms, but at 
sight of the Spaniards glittering in steel, and of the horses, which they 
supposed ravenous monsters, ran back, shrieking with horror, into their 
burning habitations. Great was the carnage, for no quarter was shown 
to age or sex. — Washington Irving. 

18. Amid all this, the center of the scene, 

The white-haired matron, with monotonous tread, 
Plied the swift wheel, and with her joyless mien 
Sat like a fate, and watched the flying thread. 

She had known Sorrow. He had walked with her, 
Oft supped, and broke with her the ashen crust, 

And in the dead leaves still she heard the stir 
Of his thick mantle trailing in the dust. 

— Thomas Buchanan Read. 



404 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

19. It was a wild, forsaken road, now winding through dreary pine 
barrens, where the wind whispered mournfully, and now over log cause- 
ways, through long cypress swamps, the doleful trees rising out of the 
slimy, spongy ground, hung with long wreaths of funereal black moss ; 
while ever and anon the loathsome form of the moccasin snake might 
be seen sliding among broken stumps and shattered branches that lay 
here and there, rotting in the water. — Harriet Beecher Stowe. 

20. Thought is deeper than all speech; 

Feeling, deeper than all thought; 
Souls to souls can never teach 
What unto themselves was taught. 

— Christopher Cranch. 

21. Yesterday thy head was brown as are the flowing locks of love ; 
In the bright blue sky I watched thee towering, giantlike, above. 
Now thy summit, white and hoary, glitters all with silver snow, 
Which the stormy night hath shaken from its robes upon thy 

brow; 

And I know that youth and age are bound with such mysterious 
meaning, 

As the days are linked together, one short dream but inter- 
vening. 

— Goethe. 

22. Shall I ask the brave soldier who fights by my side 

In the cause of mankind, if our creeds agree? 

Shall I give up the friend I have valued and tried, 

If he kneel not before the same altar with me? 

— Moore. 

23. Oh my ears are dinned and wearied with the clatter of the 

school : 
Life to them is geometric, and they act by line and rule ; — 
If there be no other wisdom, better far to be a fool ! 
Better far the honest nature, in its narrow path content, 
Taking with a child's acceptance whatsoever may be sent, 
Than the introverted vision, seeing Self preeminent. 

— Bayard Taylor. 

24. You shall receive, my dear wife, my last words in these my last 
lines ; my love I send you, that you may keep it when I am dead, and 
my counsel, that you may remember it when I am no more. I would 
not with my will present you sorrows, dear Bess ; let them go to the 
grave with me, and be buried in the dust. And seeing that it is not 
the will of God that I shall see you any more, bear my destruction 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 405 

patiently, and with an heart like yourself. ... To what friend to 
direct you I know not, for all mine have left me in the true time of 
trial. Most sorry am I, that, being thus surprised by death, I can 
leave you no better estate ; God hath prevented all my determinations, 
— that great God which worketh all in all, — and if you can live free 
from want, care for no more, for the rest is but a vanity; love God, 
and begin betimes — in him you shall find true, everlasting, and endless 
comfort; when you have travailed and wearied yourself with all sorts 
of worldly cogitations, you shall sit down by sorrow in the end. Teach 
your son also to serve and fear God whilst he is young, that the fear 
of God may grow up in him ; then will God be an husband to you, and 
a father to him, — an husband and a father that can never be taken 
from you. — Sir Walter Raleigh. 

25. With quickened step 
Brown night retires : young day pours in apace, 
And opens all the lawny prospect wide. 

The dripping rock, the mountain's misty top, 
Swell on the sight, and brighten with the dawn. 
Blue, through the dusk, the smoking currents shine; 
And from the bladed field the fearful hare 
Limps awkward; while along the forest glade 
The wild deer trip, and often turning, gaze 
At early passenger. Music awakes, 
The native voice of undissembled joy, 
And thick around, the woodland hymns arise. 
Roused by the cock, the soon-clad shepherd leaves 
.His mossy cottage, where with peace he dwells ; 
And from the crowded fold, in order, drives 
His flock, to taste the verdure of the morn. 

— Thomson. 

26. Some feelings are to mortals given, 
With less of earth in them than heaven; 
And if there be a human tear 

From passion's dross refined and clear, 
A tear so limpid and so meek, 
It would not stain an angel's cheek, 
'Tis that which pious fathers shed 
Upon a duteous daughter's head ! 

— Scott. 



406 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

27. It is imagined by many that whenever they aspire to please, 
they are required to be merry, and to show the gladness of their souls 
by flights of pleasantry and bursts of laughter. But though these men 
may be for a time heard with applause and admiration, they seldom 
delight us long. We enjoy them a little, and then retire to easiness 
and good humor, as the eye gazes awhile on eminences glittering with 
the sun, but soon turns aching away to verdure and to flowers. Gayety 
is to good humor as animal perfumes to vegetable fragrance. The 
one overpowers weak spirits, and the other recreates and revives them. 
— Dr. Samuel Johnson. 

28. Knowledge and Wisdom, far from being one, 
Have ofttimes no connection. Knowledge dwells 
In heads replete with thoughts of other men; 
Wisdom in minds attentive to their own. 
Knowledge, a rude, unprofitable mass, 

The mere materials with which Wisdom builds, 
Till smoothed, and squared, and fitted to its place, 
Does but encumber whom it seems t' enrich. 
Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much; 
Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. 

— Cow per. 

29. Poetry is commonly understood to have two objects in view; 
namely, advantage and pleasure, or rather a union of both. I wish 
those who have furnished us with this definition had rather proposed 
utility as its ultimate object, and pleasure as the means by which that 
end may be effectually accomplished. The philosopher and the poet, 
indeed, seem principally to differ in the means by which they pursue 
the same end. Each sustains the character of a preceptor, which the 
one is thought best to support if he teach with accuracy, with subtlety, 
and with perspicuity; the other with splendor, harmony, and elegance. 
The one makes his appeal to reason only, independent of the passions; 
the other addresses the reason in such a manner as even to engage the 
passions on his side. The one proceeds to virtue and truth by the 
nearest and most compendious ways ; the other leads to the same point 
through certain deflections and deviations, by a winding but pleasanter 
path. It is the part of the former so to describe and explain these ob- 
jects, that we must necessarily become acquainted with them; it is the 
part of the latter so to dress and adorn them, that of our own accord 
we must love and embrace them. . . . Poetry addresses her precepts 
not to the reason alone ; she calls the passions to her aid : she not only 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 407 

exhibits examples, but infixes them in the mind. She softens the wax 
with her peculiar ardor, and renders it more plastic to the artist's hand. 
Thus does Horace most truly and most justly apply this commendation 
to the poets : — 

What's fair, and false, and right, these bards describe, 

Better and plainer than the Stoic tribe. 

— Lowth. 

30. In youth from rock to rock I went, 
From hill to hill in discontent 

Of pleasure high and turbulent, 

Most pleased when most uneasy; 
But now my own delights I make, — 
My thirst at every rill can slake, 
And gladly Nature's love partake 

Of thee, sweet Daisy! 

— Wordsworth. 

31. Yet, ah ! why should they know their fate 
Since sorrow never comes too late, 

And happiness too swiftly flies? 
Thought would destroy their paradise. 
No more ; — where ignorance is bliss, 

'Tis folly to be wise. 

— Gray. 

32. As we contemplate the great things of God's Word, we look 
into a fountain that broadens and deepens beneath our gaze. Its 
breadth and depth pass our knowledge. As we gaze, the vision widens; 
stretched "out before us we behold a shoreless, boundless sea. Such 
study has vivifying power. The mind and heart acquire new strength, 
new life. — Mrs. E. G. White. 

33. Drowsed by the soft, 
Delicious greenness and repose, I crept 
Into a balmy nest of yielding shrubs, 
And floated off to slumber on a cloud 
Of rapturous sensation. 

When I woke, 
So deep had been the oblivion of that sleep, 
That Adam, when he woke in Paradise, 
Was not more blank of knowledge; he had felt 



408 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

As heedlessly the silence and the shade; 
As ignorantly had raised his eyes and seen — 
As, for a moment, I — what then I saw 
With terror, freezing limb and voice like death, 
When the slow sense, supplying one lost link, 
Ran with electric fleetness through the chain 
And showed me what I was, — no miracle, 
But lost and left alone amid the waste, 
Fronting a deadly pard, that kept great eyes 
Fixed steadily on mine. I could not move : 

My heart beat slow and hard; I sat and gazed, 
Without a wink, upon those jasper orbs, 
Noting the while, with horrible detail, 
Whereto my fascinated sight was bound, 
Their tawny brilliance, and the spotted fell 
That wrinkled round them, smoothly sloping back 
And curving to the short and tufted ears. 
I felt — and with a sort of fearful joy — 
The beauty of the creature : 'twas a pard, 
Not such as one of those they show you caged 
In Paris, — lean and scurvy beasts enough ! 
No ; but a desert pard, superb and proud, 
That would have died behind the cruel bars. 

I think the creature had not looked on man; 

For, as my brain grew cooler, I could see 

Small sign of fierceness in her eyes, but chief, 

Surprise and wonder. More and more entranced, 

Her savage beauty warmed away the chill 

Of deathlike terror at my heart; I stared 

With kindling admiration, and there came 

A gradual softness o'er the flinty light 

Within her eyes ; a shadow crept around 

Their yellow disks, and something like a dawn 

Of recognition of superior will, 

Of brute affection, sympathy enslaved 

By higher nature, then informed her face. 

Thrilling in every nerve, I stretched my hand, — 

She silent, moveless, — touched her velvet head, 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 409 

And with a warm, sweet shiver in my blood, 

Stroked down the ruffled hairs. She did not start ; 

But in a moment's lapse, drew up one paw 

And moved a step, — another, — till her breath 

Came hot upon my face. She stopped : she rolled 

A deep-voiced note of pleasure and of love, 

And gathering up her spotted length, lay down 

Her head upon my lap, and forward thrust 

One heavy-molded paw across my knees, 

The glittering talons sheathing tenderly. 

Thus we, in that oasis all alone, 

Sat when the sun went down : the pard and I, 

Caressing and caressed : and more of love 

And more of confidence between us came, 

I grateful for my safety, she alive 

With the dumb pleasure of companionship, 

Which touched with instincts of humanity 

Her brutish nature. When I slept, at last, 

My arm was on her neck. 

— Bayard Taylor. 

34. It was not without some awe and apprehension that I ap- 
proached the presence of my father. My infancy, to speak the truth, 
had been neglected at home ; the severity of his look and language at 
our last parting still dwelt on my memory; nor could I form any no- 
tion of his character or my probable reception. They were both more 
agreeable than I could expect. The domestic discipline of our ancestors 
has been relaxed by the philosophy and softness of the age; and if my 
father remembered that he had trembled before a stern parent, it was 
only to adopt with his own son an opposite mode of behavior. He re- 
ceived me as a man and a friend; all constraint was banished at our 
first interview, and we ever afterwards continued on the same terms 
of easy and equal politeness. He applauded the success of my educa- 
tion ; every word and action was expressive of the most cordial affec- 
tion; and our lives would have passed without a cloud, if his economy 
had been equal to his fortune, or if his fortune had been equal to his 
desires. — ■ Gibbon. 

35. Difficulty is a severe instructor, set over us by the supreme 
ordinance "of a parental Guardian and Legislator, who knows us better 
than we know ourselves, as he loves us better too. He that wrestles 
with us, strengthens our nerves, and sharpens our skill. Our antagonist 



410 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

is our helper. This amicable conflict with difficulty obliges us to an 
intimate acquaintance with our object, and compels us to consider it in 
all its relations. It will not suffer us to be superficial. — Burke. 

36. Then kneeling down to heaven's Eternal King, 

The saint, the father, and the husband prays : 
Hope " springs exulting on triumphant wing," 

That thus they all shall meet in future days; 
There ever bask in uncreated rays, 

No more to sigh, or shed the bitter tear, 
Together hymning their Creator's praise, 

In such society, yet still more dear, 
While circling time moves round in an eternal sphere. 

— Robert Burns.' 

37. I see before me the gladiator lie : 

He leans upon his hand ; his manly brow 

Consents to death, but conquers agony, 

And his drooped head sinks gradually low; 

And through his side the last drops, ebbing slow 

From the red gash, fall heavy, one by one, 

Like the first of a thundershower ; and now 

The arena swims around him; he is gone, 

Ere ceased the inhuman shout which hailed the wretch who won. 

He heard it, but he heeded not ; his eyes 
Were with his heart, and that was far away : 
He recked not of the life he lost, nor prize, 
But where his rude hut by the Danube lay; 
There were his young barbarians all at play, 
There was their Dacian mother — he, their sire, 
Butchered to make a Roman holiday. 

— Lord Byron. 

38. Those who are in the power of evil habits must conquer them 
as they can ; — and conquered they must be, or neither wisdom nor 
happiness can be attained; — but those who are not yet subject to their 
influence, may, by timely caution, preserve their freedom ; they may 
effectually resolve to escape the tyrant, whom they will verjr vainly 
resolve to conquer. — Dr. Samuel Johnson. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 411 

39. Hark ! 'tis the twanging horn ! o'er yonder bridge, 
That with its wearisome but needful length 
Bestrides the wintry flood ; in which the moon 
Sees her unwrinkled face reflected bright : — 

He comes, the herald of a noisy world, 

With spattered boots, strapped waist, and frozen locks, 

News from all nations lumbering at his back. 

True to his charge, the close-packed load behind, 

Yet careless what he brings, his one concern 

Is to conduct it to the destined inn ; 

And having dropped the expected bag, pass on. 

— Cow per. 

40. Morn on the mountain, like a summer bird, 
Lifts up her purple wing, and in the vales 

The gentle wind, a sweet and passionate wooer, 
Kisses the blushing leaf, and stirs up life 
Within the solemn woods of ash deep-crimsoned, 
And silver beech, and maple yellow-leaved, 
Where Autumn, like a faint old man, sits down 
By the wayside aweary. Through the trees 
The golden robin moves. The purple finch, 
That on wild cherry and red cedar feeds, 
A winter bird, comes with its plaintive whistle, 
And pecks by the witch-hazel, whilst aloud 
From cottage roofs the warbling bluebird sings, 
And merrily, with oft-repeated stroke, 
Sounds from the threshing floor the busy flail. 

O what a glory doth this world put on 
For him who, with a fervent heart, goes forth 
Under the bright and glorious sky, and looks 
On duties well performed, and days well spent ! 
For him the wind, aye, and the yellow leaves, 
Shall have a voice, and give him eloquent teachings. 
He shall so hear the solemn hymn that Death 
Has lifted up for all, that he shall go 
To his long resting place without a tear. 

— Longfellow. 



412 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

41. Ask yourselves what is the leading motive which actuates you 
while you are at work. I do not ask what your leading motive is for 
working — that is a different thing; you may have families to support — 
parents to help — brides to win ; you may have all these, or other such 
sacred and preeminent motives, to press the morning's labor and prompt 
the twilight thought. But when you are fairly at the work, what is 
the motive which tells upon every touch of it? If it is the love of 
that which your work represents, — if, being a landscape painter, it is 
love of hills and trees that moves you, — if, being a figure painter, it is 
love of human beauty and human soul that moves you, — if, being a 
flower or animal painter, it is love, and wonder, and delight in petal 
and in limb that moves you, then the spirit is upon you, and the earth 
is yours, and the fullness thereof. But if, on the other hand, it is 
petty self-complacency in your own skill, trust in precepts and laws, 
hope for academical or popular approbation, or avarLe of wealth — it 
is quite possible that by steady industry, or even by fortunate chance, 
you may win the applause, the position, the fortune, that you desire ; 
but one touch of true art you will never lay on canvas or on stone 
as long as you live. — John Ruskin. 

42. I've watched you now a full half hour, 
Self-poised upon that yellow flower; 
And, little Butterfly! indeed 
I know not if you sleep or feed, — 
How motionless ! not frozen seas 
* More motionless ! and then 

What joy awaits you when the breeze 
Hath found you out among the trees, 
And calls you forth again ! 

This plot of orchard ground is ours, 

My trees they are, my sister's flowers; 
Here rest your wings when they are weary; 
Here lodge as in a sanctuary ! 
Come often to us, fear no wrong; 

Sit near us on the bough ! 
We'll talk of sunshine and of song; 
And summer days, when we were young; 
Sweet childish days, that were as long 

As twenty days are now. 

— Wordsworth. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 413 

43. Some drill and bore 
The solid earth, and from the strata there 
Extract a register by which we learn 
That he who made it and revealed its date 
To Moses was mistaken in its age. 

Some, more acute and more industrious still, 
Contrive creation; travel nature up 
To the sharp peak of her sublimest height, 
And tell us whence the stars ; why some are fixed, 
And planetary some; what gave them first 
Rotation, from what fountain flowed their light. 
Great contest follows, and much learned dust 
Involves the combatants; each claiming truth, 
And truth disclaiming both. And thus they spend 
The little wick of life's poor shallow lamp 
In playing tricks with nature, giving laws 
To distant worlds, and trifling in their own. 

— Cow per, 

44. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, 
There is a rapture on the lonely shore, 
There is society, where none intrudes, 

By the deep sea, and music in its roar; 

I love not man the less, but nature more, 

From these our interviews, in which I steal 

From all I may be, or have been before, 

To mingle with the universe, and feel 

What I can ne'er express, yet cannot all conceal. 

— Lord Byron. 

45. O, a dainty plant is the ivy green, 

That creepeth o'er ruins old ! 
Of right choice food are his meals, I ween, 

In his cell so lone and cold. 
The walls must be crumbled, the stones decayed, 

To pleasure his dainty whim'; 
And the moldering dust that years have made 
Is a merry meal for him. 

Creeping where no life is seen, 
A rare old plant is the ivy green. 



414 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

Fast he stealeth on, though he wears no wings, 

And a stanch old heart has he ! 
How closely he twineth, how tight he clings 

To his friend, the huge oak tree ! 
And slyly he traileth along the ground, 

And his leaves he gently waves, 
And he joyously twines and hugs around 

The rich mold of dead men's graves. 
Creeping where no life is seen, 
A rare old plant is the ivy green. 

Whole ages have fled, and their works decayed, 

And nations scattered been ; 
But the stout old ivy shall never fade 

From its hale and hearty green. 
The brave old plant in its lonely days 

Shall fatten upon the past ; 
For the stateliest building man can raise 
Is the ivy's food at last. 

Creeping where no life is seen, 
A rare old plant is the ivy green. 

— Charles Dickens. 

46. The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year, 

Of wailing winds, and naked woods, and meadows brown and 

sear. 
Heaped in the hollows of the grove, the autumn leaves lie 

dead ; 
They rustle to the eddying gust, and to the rabbit's tread. 
The robin and the wren are flown, and from the shrubs the 

jay, 
And from the wood top calls the crow through all the gloomy 

day. 

Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers, that lately sprang 

and stood 
In brighter light and softer airs, a beauteous sisterhood? 
Alas ! they all are in their graves ; the gentle race of flowers 
Are lying in their lowly beds with the fair and good of ours. 
The rain is falling where they lie; but the cold November rain 
Calls not from out the gloomy earth the lovely ones again. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 415 

The windflower and the violet, they perished long ago, 
And the brier rose and the orchis died amid the summer glow ; 
But on the hill the goldenrod, and the aster in the wood, 
And the yellow sunflower by the brook in autumn beauty stood, 
Till fell the frost from the clear cold heaven, as falls the plague 

on men, 
And the brightness of their smile was gone from upland, glade, 

and glen. 

And now, when comes the calm, mild day, as still such days 

will come, 
To call the squirrel and the bee from out their winter home ; 
When the sound of dropping nuts is heard, though all the trees 

are still, 
And twinkle in the smoky light the waters of the rill, 
The South Wind searches for the flowers whose fragrance late 

he bore, 
And sighs to find them in the wood and by the stream no more. 

— Bryant. 

47. The Assyrian came down like the* wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold; 
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, 
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. 

Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green, 
That host with their banners at sunset were seen ; 
Like the leaves of the forest when autumn hath blown, 
That host on the morrow lay withered and strown. 

For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast, 
And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed ; 
And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill, 
And their hearts but once heaved, and forever grew still ! 

And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide, 
But through it there rolled not the breath of his pride; 
And the foam of his gasping lay white on the turf, 
And cold as the spray of the rock-beating surf. 



416 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

And there lay the rider distorted and pale, 
With the dew on his brow and the rust on his mail; 
And the tents were all silent, the banners alone, 
The lances unlifted, the trumpet unblown. 

And the widows of Ashur are loud in their wail, 
And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal ; 
And the might of the Gentile, unsmote by the sword, 
Hath melted like snow in the glance of the Lord ! 

— Lord Byron. 

48. Let me have men about me that are fat; 

Sleek-headed men, and such as sleep o' nights : 
Yond' Cassius has a lean and hungry look; 
He thinks too much : such men are dangerous. 

— Shakespeare. 

. 49. The Being that is in the clouds and air, 

That is in the green leaves among the groves, 
Maintains a deep and reverential care 
For the unoffending creatures whom he loves. 

— Wordsworth. 
50. It was the pleasant harvest time, 

When cellar bins are closely stowed, 
And garrets bend beneath their load. 

And the old swallow-haunted barns — 
Brown-gabled, long, and full of seams 
Through which the moted sunlight streams, 

And winds blow freshly in, to shake 
The red plumes of the roosted cocks, 
And the loose haymow's scented locks — 

Are filled with summer's ripened stores, 
Its odorous grass and barley sheaves, 
From their low scaffolds to their eaves. 

On Esek Harden's oaken floor, 

With many an autumn threshing worn, 
Lay the heaped ears of unhusked corn. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 417 

And thither came young men and maids, 
Beneath a moon that, large and low, 
Lit that sweet eve of long ago. 

They took their places; some by chance, 
And others by a merry voice 
Or sweet smile guided to their choice. 

How pleasantly the rising moon, 
Between the shadow of the mows, 
Looked on them through the great elm boughs ! — 

On sturdy boyhood sun-embrowned, 
On girlhood with its solid curves 
Of healthful strength and painless nerves! 



But still the sweetest voice was mute 
That river valley ever heard 
From lip of maid or throat of bird; 

For Mabel Martin sat apart, 
And let the haymow's shadow fall 
Upon the loveliest face of all. 

She sat apart, as one forbid, 
Who knew that none would condescend 
To own the witchwife's child a friend. 

— Whittier. 

51. In the annals of human history the growth of nations, the rise 
and fall of empires, appear as dependent upon the will and prowess of 
man. The shaping of events seems, to a great degree, to be determined 
by his power, ambition, or caprice. But in the Word of God the curtain 
is drawn aside, and we behold, behind, above, and through all the play 
and counter play of human interests and power and passions, the agen- 
cies of the all-merciful One, silently, patiently working out the counsels 
of his own will. — Mrs. E. G. White. 

27 



418 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

52. This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the 

hemlocks, 
Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the 

twilight, 
Stand like Druids of eld, with voices sad and prophetic, 
Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms. 
Loud from its rocky caverns, the deep-voiced neighboring 

ocean 
Speaks, and in accents disconsolate answers the wail of the 

forest. 

This is the forest primeval; but where are the hearts that 

beneath it 
Leaped like the roe, when he hears in the woodland the voice 

of the huntsman? 
Where is the thatch-roofed village, the home of Acadian 

farmers, — 
Men whose lives glided on like rivers that water the woodlands, 
Darkened by shadows of earth, but reflecting an image of 

heaven ? 
Waste are those pleasant farms, and the farmers forever de- 
parted ! 
Scattered like dust and leaves, when the mighty blasts of 

October 
Seize them, and whirl them aloft, and sprinkle them far o'er 

the ocean. 
Naught but tradition remains of the beautiful village of 

Grand Pre. 

— Longfellow. 

53. The stars are forth, the moon above the tops 
Of the snow-shining mountains. — Beautiful ! 
I linger yet with Nature, for the night 
Hath been to me a more familiar face 
Than that of man; and in her starry shade 
Of dim and solitary loveliness 
I learned the language of another world. 
I do remember me, that in my youth, 
When I was wandering, — upon such a night 
I stood within the Colosseum's wall, 
Midst the chief relics of almighty Rome. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 419 

The trees which grew along the broken arches 

Waved dark in the blue midnight, and the stars 

Shone through the rents of ruin ; from afar 

The watchdog bayed beyond the Tiber; and 

More near, from out the Caesars' palace came 

The owl's long cry, and, interruptedly, 

Of distant sentinels the fitful song 

Begun and died upon the gentle wind. 

Some cypresses beyond the timeworn breach 

Appeared to skirt the horizon, yet they stood 

Within a bowshot, — where the Caesars dwelt, 

And dwell the tuneless birds of night, amidst 

A grove which springs through leveled battlements, 

And twines its roots with the imperial hearths. 

Ivy usurps the laurel's place of growth ; — 

But the gladiators' bloody Circus stands, 

A noble wreck in ruinous perfection, 

While Caesar's chambers and the Augustan halls 

Grovel on earth in indistinct decay. — 

And thou didst shine, thou rolling moon, upon 

All this, and cast a wide and tender light, 

Which softened down the hoar austerity 

Of rugged desolation, and filled up, 

As 't were anew, the gaps of centuries, 

Leaving that beautiful which still was so, 

And making that which was not, till the place 

Became religion, and the heart ran o'er 

With silent worship of the great of old ! — 

The dead, but sceptered sovereigns, who still rule 

Our spirits from their urns. 

— Byron. 



420 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

APPENDIX 
A. Definition of Terms 

Nouns and Pronouns (Substantives) 

A Noun is the name of anything. 

A Common Noun is a name applied in common to any- 
one or more of a class. 

A Proper Noun is a name given to an individual person 
or thing to distinguish it from all others of its class. 

A Collective Noun is the name of a collection of persons 
or things. 

An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality. 

A Verbal Noun is the name of an action. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It repre- 
sents a person or thing without naming it. 

A Personal Pronoun shows by its form whether it is in 
the first, second, or third person. 

A Relative Pronoun shows the relation of its clause to the 
word which the pronoun represents. 

An Interrogative Pronoun represents the thing inquired 
for in asking a question. 

Properties 

Nouns and pronouns have certain properties, — Person, 
Number, Gender, Office, and Form. 

There are three persons: First, Second, and Third. 
The First Person represents the one who is speaking. 
The Second Person represents those who are spoken to. 
The Third Person represents the person or thing spoken of. 



APPENDIX 421 

There are two numbers : Singular and Plural. 

The Singular Number denotes only one thing. 

The Plural Number denotes more than one thing. 

There are three genders : Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 

The Masculine Gender denotes the male sex. 

The Feminine Gender denotes the female sex. 

The Neuter Gender denotes things that have no sex. 

The Office of a noun or pronoun is the part it performs 
in the sentence where it is used. It may be Subject, Object, 
Chief Word of a Phrase, etc. 

The Form of a noun or pronoun is its spelling, which 
varies in keeping with its office in the sentence. 

Verbs 

A complete Verb denotes action, being, or state, and pred- 
icates it. 

Kinds : — 

A Regular Verb forms its past tense and past participle 
by adding ed to its present indicative. 

An Irregular Verb forms its past tense in various ways 
other than by adding ed. 

A Redundant Verb has both a regular and an irregular 
form. 

A Defective Verb lacks some of the principal parts, and 
so cannot be used in all the tenses. 

There are four classes of verbs: Transitive, Intransitive, 
Copula, and Copulative. 

A Transitive Verb represents its subject as performing 
action upon some object, or as itself receiving action. 

In the Active Voice a transitive verb represents its sub- 
ject as performing action upon an object. 

In the Passive Voice a transitive verb represents its 
subject as receiving action. 



422 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

An Intransitive Verb may predicate action, being, or 
state ; but when it predicates action, it does not represent the 
action as being received by anything. 

The Copula Verb never denotes action, but predicates the 
quality, state, or action denoted by another word used with it 
to complete the predicate. 

The Copulative Verb not only predicates the action, be- 
ing, or state denoted by itself, but it also does the work of a 
copula in predicating the action, quality, or state denoted by 
some other word used with it to complete the predicate. 

Modes 

Mode has reference to the manner in which the verb predi- 
cates. There are five modes in our language. 

The Indicative Mode represents the action, being, or 
state as actually existing or occurring, or having occurred, or 
that it will occur ; or it simply asks a question. 

The Subjunctive Mode is used to express what is doubt- 
ful, conditional, contrary to fact, or merely supposed. 

The Potential Mode predicates the power, necessity, duty, 
etc., of its subject to act, to exist, or to be in a certain state. 

The Imperative Mode commands, exhorts, or entreats. 

The Infinitive Mode (so called) has no power to predi- 
cate, and primarily names the action which it denotes. 

Tenses 

Tenses relate to time or to time and state. They are fully 
defined and described in sections 56, 57, 133-139, which see. 

Forms 

The term Form is used for certain variations of the verb 
not indicating mode, tense, voice, person, or number. 

The term Common Form has little use because of its de- 
noting merely the absence of variation from the simplest form 
of the verb. 



APPENDIX 423 

Progressive Form applies to verbs ending in ing, regard- 
less of mode, tense, etc. 

Emphatic Form applies to those forms of the verb with 
which do, does, or did is combined in other than questions. 

Participles 

Participles, like verbs, denote action, being, or state, but 
have no power to predicate. They are derived from verbs, but 
are used mostly like adjectives, being employed to limit nouns 
and pronouns. 

The Progressive Participle represents its action as pro- 
gressing at the time denoted by the predicate. It has both a 
simple and a compound form. 

The Past Participle represents its action as completed 
at the time denoted by the predicate. It is spelled the same as 
the simple passive. 

The Passive Participle represents an action as being re- 
ceived by that which the participle describes. It has both a 
simple and a compound form. The simple form is used with 
the copula to make the passive voice. 

The Perfect Participle has three forms: the Common, 
the Progressive, and the Passive. Each of these forms as- 
sumes just what a perfect tense of that form would predicate. 

Modifiers 

A Modifier is a word used to introduce some circum- 
stance of quality, condition, number, time, place, manner, pur- 
pose, cause, or in some other way to restrict or extend the 
application of other words. 

A Descriptive Adjective describes the thing named by 
the noun to which it is added, generally by denoting some qual- 
ity or condition. 

A Limiting Adjective points out or numbers, but does 
not describe. 



424 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

An Adverb is added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, 
or an adverb, to tell how, why, when, or where a thing was 
done, and the like. 

A Relative Adverb, like a relative pronoun, shows the 
relation of an adjective clause to a noun or pronoun. 

A Conjunctive Adverb is one that shows a substantive 
clause to be subordinate in rank. 

The Comparative Form of an adjective or an adverb, 
usually formed by adding er, is employed in comparing two 
things ; the Superlative Form, usually made by adding est, 
is employed in comparing more than two things. 

Relation Words 

A Preposition shows the relation of a noun or pronoun 
to some other word. It is the relation word of an ordinary 
adjective or adverbial phrase. 

A Coordinate Conjunction is put between words, 
phrases, or clauses to show that they are equal in rank, or in 
the same office. 

A Subordinate Conjunction is the relation word of a 
subordinate clause; it shows the clause to be subordinate in 
rank, and usually indicates its use. 

The Interjection 

An Interjection is a word used wholly to express emotion. 

The Sentence and Its Parts 

A Sentence is a group of words that makes a statement, 
asks a question, or gives a command; it must express a com- 
plete thought. 

The Subject of a sentence is the word, or group of words, 
concerning which the statement is made. 

The Predicate is the word or words that predicate some- 
thing concerning the subject. 

The Object is a word added to an action word to tell what 



APPENDIX • 425 

receives the action. The base of a prepositional phrase is also 
called the object of the preposition. 

A Clause is a member of a sentence, and has a subject 
and predicate of its own. 

A Principal Clause makes the main statement, and could 
make a sentence by itself. 

A Subordinate Clause makes a subordinate statement, 
and is dependent upon some other element in a sentence. 

An Adjective Clause is one that does the work of an 
adjective. 

An Adverbial Clause is one that does the work of an 
adverb. 

A Substantive Clause is one that does the work of 
a noun. 

A Phrase is a group of words not constituting a clause, but 
performing a distinct office in a sentence. 

A Prepositional Phrase has a preposition for its relation 
word and a substantive for its base. 

An Adjective Phrase is a prepositional phrase that is 
added to a noun or pronoun. 

An Adverbial Phrase is one that does the work of an 
adverb, and is usually a prepositional phrase. 

A Participial Phrase has a participle for its chief word, 
and has the use of an adjective. 

An Adjectival Phrase has an adjective for its chief word, 
and the whole phrase is used like an adjective word, to de- 
scribe or point out. 

The Appositional Phrase is an adjective element that 
has a noun or pronpun in apposition as its chief word. 

The Phrase Absolute arises from abridging a principal 
clause, and is as independent as the clause would be in its com- 
plete form. 

The Vocative Phrase is independent, and has for its chief 
word a noun or pronoun independent by address. 



426 . ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

B. Laws of Form 

The English Noun has but few changes in form. It has 
none for person, and the plural is generally formed simply by 
adding ^ to the singular. 

A noun ending in y with a consonant next to it, changes y 
to ie before .adding s. 

Nouns of English origin add es to final o whenever the 
letter next to the o is a consonant. 

A few nouns ending in / change / to ve before adding s. 

The plural of signs, letters, etc., is made by adding the apos- 
trophe and s. 

The gender of nouns is distinguished by different endings, 
by prefixing words, or by the use of different words altogether. 

The noun has no inflection on account of its different offices 
in a sentence, except when it is used as an adjective element 
to tell whose. It then generally adds the apostrophe and &, 
unless it is a plural noun ending in s, in which case it adds the 
apostrophe only. 

The Pronoun must have the same person, number, and 
gender as the noun for which it stands, but not necessarily 
the same case. 

When a pronoun represents two or more singular nouns, 
it must be in the plural number if the nouns are taken to- 
gether ; but if they are to be regarded separately, the pronoun 
must agree with the one next to it. 

The pronoun has three forms to agree with its different 
offices in a sentence: the Subjective, the Possessive, and the 
Objective. 



APPENDIX 42? 

A Declinable Pronoun must be put in the Subjective 
Form, — 

a. When it is the subject of a sentence or a clause. 

b. When it is in either predicated or assumed apposition 
with the subject, or with any other word whose office would 
require the subjective form. 

c. When it is independent by address, by exclamation, by 
pleonasm, or in a phrase absolute. 

A Declinable Pronoun must be put in the Possessive 
Form when used adjectively to tell whose, or when in appo- 
sition with any word in the possessive form. 

A Declinable Pronoun must be put in the Objective 
Form, — ■ 

a. When it is object of a transitive verb, participle, or 
verbal noun. 

b. When it is used after a preposition as chief word of a 
phrase. 

c. When it is the chief word of an abridged clause that is 
object of a verb or a preposition; that is, subject of an in- 
finitive. 

d. When it is in predicate with to be with a subject of 
its own. 

e. When it is in apposition with any word whose office 
would require the objective form. 

The English Verb has very few inflections. With the 
exception of the verb to be, it has no change on account 
of the person and number of its subject in any tense or mode 
except in the present indicative, and in the auxiliary of the 
present perfect. 

Any verb except the verb to be adds s to its present 
tense in the Indicative Mode whenever its subject is in the 
third person, singular number; but no verb except the verb 
to be changes its past tense for the person and number of 
its subject. 



428 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

In the present perfect tense of the indicative mode, the aux- 
iliary has is used instead of have whenever the subject is in 
the third person, singular number. 

In the present indicative, common form, the verb to be 
is am when the subject is in the first, singular; is when the 
subject is in the third, singular; and are with a subject in any 
other person and number. 

In the past indicative, the verb to be is was when the 
subject is in either the first person, singular number, or in the 
third, singular. With any other subject it is were. 

In Other Modes than the indicative, the verb has no 
change for the person and number of its subject, excepting 
the solemn form. 

In the Solemn Form thou is used as subject in the second 
person, singular number, and requires its verb to end in t, st f 
or est. In the third person, singular, present tense, of the in- 
dicative mode, the verb ends in th or eth. 

Two or more Singular Subjects taken together, are 
equivalent to a subject in the third person, plural number, and 
the verb and pronoun must agree with them accordingly; but 
if they are regarded separately, the verb or the pronoun must 
agree with the one next to it. 

When a Collective Noun is so used that the individuals 
composing the collection are considered separately, the pronoun 
representing it must be in the plural number; and the verb 
that has such a noun for subject must take the same form that 
it would with a subject in the third person, plural number. 

When a Collective Noun is so used that the entire col- 
lection is taken together as a unit, the pronoun that represents 
it must be in the singular number ; and the verb that has such 
a subject must take the same form that it would with any other 
subject in the third person, singular number. 

The pronoun Who should be used with reference to per- 



APPENDIX 429 

sons and superior beings only, or to things that are endowed 
with the attributes of a person. Which and What should 
never be used to represent persons, though in the Bible and 
other ancient writings Which may be found referring to per- 
sons. That may represent either persons or things, or both 
together. Who has a different form for the nominative, pos- 
sessive, and objective. Which has different forms for the 
nominative and possessive, but not for the objective. That 
has but one form as a relative. 

A Compound or Complex Possessive adds the posses- 
sive sign to the last word only. 



430 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



C. List of Irregular Verbs 

When more forms than one are given for the past tense or 
past participle, that which stands first is to be preferred. 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


abide 


abode 


abode 


am or be 


was 


been 


awake 


awoke, awaked 


awaked 


i bear (to bring forth) 
(bear (to sustain) 


bore 


born 


bore 


borne 


beat 


beat 


beaten, beat 


begin 


began 


begun 


bend, un- 


bent, bended 


bent 


bereave 


bereaved, bereft 


bereaved, bereft 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bet 


bet, betted 


bet, betted 


bid 


bade, bid 


bidden, bid 


bind, un-, re- 


• bound 


bound 


bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke 


broken 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build, re-, up- 


built, builded 


built, builded 


burn 


burned, burnt 


burned, burnt 


burst 


burst 


burst 


buy- 


bought 

could 

cast 


bought 


can 
cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


chide 


chid 


chidden, chid 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


i cleave (to adhere) 
"J cleave (to split) 


cleaved 


cleaved 


cleft, clove 


cleft, cleaved, cloven 


cling 


clung 


clung 


clothe 


clothed, clad 


clothed, clad 


come, be-, over- 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 





APPENDIX 




Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


creep 


crept 


crept 


crow 


crew, crowed 


crowed 


cut 


cut 


cut 


dare (to venture) 


dared, durst 


dared 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


dig 


dug, digged 


dug, digged 


do, un-, mis-, over- 


did 


done 


draw, with- 


drew 


drawn 


dream 


dreamed, dreamt 


dreamed, dreamt 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


drive 


drove 


driven 


dwell 


dwelt, dwelled 


dwelt, dwelled 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fall, be- 


fell 


fallen 


tted 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


flee 


fled 


fled 


fling 


flung 


flung 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forbid 


forbade 


forbidden 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


freight • 


freighted 


freighted, fraught 


get, be- 


got 


got, gotten 


gild 


gilded 


gilded, gilt 


gird, be-, un-, en- 


girded, girt 


girded, girt 


give, for-, mis- 


gave 


given 


go, fore-, under- 


went 


gone 


grave, en- 


graved 


graven, graved 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang * 


hung 


hung 


have 


had 


had 


hear, over- 


heard 


heard 



431 



* Hang, to take away life by hanging, is regular. 



432 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


heave 


heaved, 


hove 


heaved, hoven 


hew 


hewed 




hewed, hewn 


hide 


hid 




hidden, hid 


hit 


hit 




hit 


hold, be-, with-, up- 


held 




held, holden 


hurt 


hurt 




hurt 


keep 


kept 




kept 


kneel 


knelt, kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


knit 


knit, knitted 


knit, knitted 


know, fore- 


knew 




known 


lade (to load) 


laded 




laded, laden 


lay (to place), in- 


laid 




laid 


lead, mis- 


led 




led 


leave 


left 




left 


lend 


lent 




lent 


let 


let 




let 


lie (to recline) 


lay 




lain 


light 


lighted, lit 


lighted, lit 


load, un-, over- 


loaded 




loaded, laden 


lose 


lost 




lost 


make 


made 
might 




made 


may 




mean 


meant 




meant 


meet 


met 




met 


mow 


mowed 




mowed, mown 


must 
ought 


















pay, re- 


paid 




paid 


pen (to inclose) 


penned, 


pent 


penned, pent 


put 


put 




put 


quit 


quit, quitted 


quit, quitted 




quoth 










read 


read 




read 


rend 


rent 




rent 


rid 


rid 




rid 


ride 


rode 




ridden 


ring 


rang 




rung 





APPENDIX 


i 


Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


rise, th- 


rose 




risen 


rive 


rived 




riven, rived 


run, out- 


ran 




run 


saw 


sawed 




sawed, sawn 


say, tin-, gain- 


said 




said 


see, fore- 


saw 




seen 


seek 


sought 




sought 


seethe 


seethed 




seethed, sodden 


sell 


sold 




sold 


send 


sent 




sent 


set, be- 


set 




set 


shake 


shook 




shaken 


shall 
shape, mis- 


should 
shaped 








shaped, shapen 


shave 


shaved 




shaved, shaven 


shear 


sheared 




sheared, shorn 


shed 


shed 




shed 


shine 


shone, : 


shined 


shone, shined 


shoe 


shod 




shod 


shoot, over- 


shot 




shot 


show 


showed 




shown, showed 


shred 


shred 




shred 


shrink 


shrank, 


shrunk 


shrunk, shrunken 


shut 


shut 




shut 


sing 


sang, sung 


sung 


sink 


sank, sunk 


sunk 


sit (to rest) 


sat 




sat 


slay 


slew 




slain 


sleep 


slept 




slept 


slide 


slid 




slidden, slid 


sling 


slung 




slung 


slink 


slunk 




slunk 


slit 


slit 




slit 


smite 


smote 




smitten 


sow (to scatter) 


sowed 




sowed, sown 


speak, be- 


spoke, spake 


spoken 


speed 


sped 




sped 


spell, mis- 


spelled, 


spelt 


spelled, spelt 


spend, mis- 


spent 




spent 


spill 


spilled 




spilled, spilt 



433 



28 



434 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


spin 




spun 


spun 


spit* 




spit, spat 


spit 


split 




split 


split 


spread, over-. 


, be- 


spread 


spread 


spring 




sprang 


sprung 


stand, with-, 


under- 


stood 


stood 


stave 




staved, stove 


staved, stove 


steal 




stole 


stolen 


stick 




stuck 


stuck 


sting 




stung 


stung 


stink 




stank, stunk 


stunk 


strew, be- 




strewed 


strewed, strewn 


stride, be- 




strode 


stridden 


strike 




struck 


struck, stricken 


string 




strung 


strung 


strive 




strove 


striven 


strow 




strowed 


strown 


swear, for- 




swore 


sworn 


sweat 




sweat, sweated 


sweat, sweated 


sweep 




swept 


swept 


swell 




swelled 


swollen, swelled 


swim 




swam 


swum 


swing [re- 


, over- 


swung 


swung 


take, mis- , under-, be- 


took 


taken 


teach, un-j mis- 


taught 


taught 


tear 




tore 


torn 


tell, fore- 




told 


told 


think, be- 




thought 


thought 


thrive 




throve, thrived 


thriven, thrived 


throw, over- 




threw • 


thrown 


thrust 




thrust 


thrust 


tread, re- 




trod 


trodden, trod 


wake 




waked, woke 


waked 


wax 




waxed 


waxed, waxen 


wear 




wore 


worn 


weave, un- 




wove 


woven 


weep 




wept 


wept 


wet 




wet 


wet 


* Spit, to 


put on a 


spit, is regular. 







APPENDIX 


• 


Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


whet 


whetted, whet 


whetted, whet 


will * 
win 


would 
won 




won 


wind, un- 


wound 


wound 


work 


worked, wrought 


worked, wrought 


wot 
wring 


wist 
wrung 




wrung 


write 


wrote 


written 



435 



* Will, to bequeath, is regular. 

Remarks. — Verbs that have both a regular and an irreg- 
ular form are said to be redundant. 

Verbs that do not have all the principal parts, — present 
tense, past tense, past participle, — are said to be defective. 



436 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



D. Gender List for Reference 



Masculine 


Feminine 


Masculine 


Feminine 


bachelor 


maid 


beau 


belle 


buck 


doe 


cock 


hen 


drake 


duck 


earl 


countess 


husband 


wife 


king 


queen 


lord 


lady 


nephew 


niece 


ram 


ewe 


stag 


hind 


dog 


bitch 


horse 


mare 


wizard 


witch 


monk 


nun 


hart 


roe 


sir 


madam 


swain 


nymph 


youth 


damsel 


actor 


actress 


abbot 


abbess 


baron 


baroness 


administrator 


administratrix 


count 


countess 


bridegroom 


bride 


czar 


czarina 


dauphin 


dauphiness 


don 


donna 


deacon 


deaconess 


duke 


duchess 


emperor 


empress 


heir 


heiress 


executor 


executrix 


hero 


heroine 


governor 


governess 


host 


hostess 


hunter 


huntress 


Jew 


Jewess 


landgrave 


landgravine 


poet 


poetess 


marquis 


marchioness 


patron 


patroness 


prince 


princess 


priest 


priestess 


testator 


testatrix 


tiger 


tigress 


shepherd 


shepherdess 


prophet 


prophetess 


viscount 


viscountess 


god 


goddess 


widower 


widow 


giant 


giantess 


songster 


songstress 


negro 


negress 


sorcerer 


sorceress 


sultan 


sultana 


lion 


lioness 


landlord 


landlady 


gentleman 


gentlewoman 


peacock 


peahen 


cock sparrow 


hen sparrow 


merman 


mermaid 


Englishman 


Englishwoman 



APPENDIX 



437 



E. Conjugation of the Verb To Be 

Indicative Mode 







PRESENT TENSE 


Singular 

1. I am 

2. Thou art 

3. He is 


Plural 

1. We are 

2. You are 

3. They are 






PAST TENSE 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I was 
Thou wast 
He was 


1. We were 

2. You were 

3. They were 

FUTURE TENSE 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I shall be 
Thou wilt be 
He will be 


1. We shall be 

2. You will be 

3. They will be 




PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I have been 
Thou hast been 
He has been 


1. We have been 

2. You have been 

3. They have been 




PAST PERFECT TENSE 


1. 
2. 

3. 


I had been 
Thou hadst been 
He had been 


1. We had been 

2. You had been 

3. They had been 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

1. I shall have been 1. We shall have been 

2. Thou wilt have been 2. You will have been 

3. He will have been 3. They will have been 



438 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



Subjunctive Mode 



PRESENT TENSE 



1. If I be 

2. If thou be 

3. If he be 



1. If I were 

2. If thou wert 

3. If he were 



1. If we be 

2. If you be 

3. If they be 



PAST TENSE 



1. If we were 

2. If you were 

3. If they were 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 



1. If I have been 

2. If thou have been 

3. If he have been 



1. If we have been 

2. If you have been 

3. If they have been 



PAST PERFECT TENSE 



1. If I had been 

2. If thou had been 

3. If he had been 



1. If we had been 

2. If you had been 

3. If they had been 



Imperative Mode: Present, singular and plural, Be (thou or 

you) 
Infinitive Mode: Present, to be; Perfect, to have been 
Participles: Present, being; Past, been; Perfect, having been 



APPENDIX 



439 



F. Conjugation of the Verb To See 

Active Voice 
Indicative Mode 



PRESENT TENSE 



Singular 

1. I see 

2. Thou seest 

3. He sees 



1. T saw 

2. Thou sawest 

3. He saw 



1. I shall see 

2. Thou wilt see 

3. He will see 



Plural 

1. We see 

2. You sec 

3. They see 



PAST TENSE 



1. We saw 

2. You saw 

3. They saw 



FUTURE TENSE 



1. We shall see 

2. You will see 

3. They will see 



1. I have seen 

2. Thou hast seen 

3. He has seen 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

1. We have seen 

2. You have seen 

3. They have seen 



1. I Had seen 

2. Thou hadst seen 

3. He had seen 



PAST PERFECT TENSE 

1. We had seen 

2. You had seen 

3. They had seen 



440 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

1. I shall have seen 1. We shall have seen 

2. Thou wilt have seen 2. You will have seen 

3. He will have seen 3. He will have seen 



Subjunctive Mode 

PRESENT TENSE 

1. If I see 1. If we see 

2. If thou see 2. If you see 

3. If he see 3. If they see 

PAST TENSE 

1. If I saw 1. If we saw 

2. If thou saw 2. If you saw 

3. If he saw 3. If they saw 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

1. If I have seen 1. If we have seen 

2. If thou have seen 2. If you have seen 

3. If he have seen 3. If they have seen 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

1. If I had seen 1. If we had seen 

2. If thoujiad seen 2. If you had seen 

3. If he had seen 3. If they had seen 



Imperative Mode: Present, singular and plural, See (thou 

or you) 
Infinitive Mode : Present, to see ; Perfect, to have seen 
Participles: Present, seeing; Past, seen; Perfect, having seen 



APPENDIX 



441 



Passive Voice 
Indicative Mode 

PRESENT TENSE 



1. I am seen 

2. Thou art seen 

3. He is seen 



1. I was seen 

2. Thou wast seen 

3. He was seen 



1. We are seen 

2. You are seen 

3. They are seen 



PAST TENSE 



1. We were seen 

2. You were seen 

3. They were seen 



FUTURE TENSE 



1. I shall be seen 

2. Thou wilt be seen 

3. He will be seen 



1. We shall be seen 

2. You will be seen 

3. They will be seen 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 



1. I have been seen 

2. Thou hast been seen 

3. He has been seen 



1. We have been seen 

2. You have been seen 

3. They have been seen 



PAST PERFECT TENSE 



1. I had been seen 

2. Thou hadst been seen 

3. He had been seen 



1. We had been seen 

2. You had been seen 

3. They had been seen 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 



1. I shall have been seen 

2. Thou wilt have been seen 

3. He will have been seen 



1. We shall have been seen 

2. You will have been seen 

3. They will have been seen 



442 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

Subjunctive Mode 



PRESENT TENSE 



1. If I be seen 1. If we be seen 

2. If thou be seen 2. If you be seen 

3. If he be seen 3. If they be seen 

PAST TENSE 

1. If I were seen 1. If we were seen 

2. If thou wert seen 2. If you were seen 

3. If he were seen 3. If they were seen 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

1. If I have been seen 1. If we have been seen 

2. If thou have been seen 2. If you have been seen 

3. If he have been seen 3. If they have been seen 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

1. If I had been seen 1. If we had been seen 

2. If thou had been seen 2. If you had been seen 

3. If he had been seen 3. If they had been seen 



Imperative Mode: Present, singular and plural, Be (thou or 

you) seen 
Infinitive Mode: Present, to be seen; Perfect, to have been 

seen 
Participles: Present, being seen; Past, seen; Perfect, having 

been seen 



APPENDIX 443 



G. Use of Capital Letters 

Use a capital letter to begin, — 

1. The first word in every sentence. 

2. The first word in every line of poetry. 

3. The first word of every direct quotation when a com- 
plete sentence. 

4. The first word and every important word in the titles 
of books, articles, or other matter having a general heading. 

5. Every proper noun or abbreviation of a proper noun, 
such as the initials in a person's name, the abbreviation of a 
title attached to a name, etc. 

6. Most adjectives derived from proper nouns; a few 
have lost their association with the name from which they were 
originally derived and are written with a small initial letter, 
especially when in common use. 

7. Every title attached to the name of a person, whether 
preceding or following it. 

8. The interjection and the pronoun /. 

9. Personal pronouns referring to the Deity, especially 
when no name of the Deity occurs in the same sentence or 
when the capital initial is necessary to make it clear to whom 
the pronoun refers. 

Note. — This rule is often not observed when its use would result 
in too large a number of capitals; as in the Bible, in many hymn 
books, and works on religious subjects. 

10. Common nouns and adjectives sometimes have the cap- 
ital initial to help the eye in catching the main points of a 
definition, or of a topic not used as a heading, or under sim- 
ilar conditions. When so used they may be called topical 
capitals, but they should be used sparingly for this purpose. 



444 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

H. Rules of Punctuation 

Only the simpler rules for the most commonly used marks 
of punctuation are given here. Few exceptions are noted. 

The punctuation marks most used are the comma, the pe- 
riod, and the interrogation point. Less frequently used are 
the semicolon, the colon, the dash, the exclamation point, marks 
of parenthesis, and quotation marks. 

THE COMMA 

The comma is used for the briefest pauses within a sen- 
tence. Formerly the comma was used more mechanically and 
more frequently than now. The best general rule is to use it 
only when necessary to make the sense clear without effort 
by the reader. Overuse tends to interrupt the easy flow of 
thought. 

In general, the comma is used where we naturally make a 
short pause in speaking. 

In particular, the comma is used, — 

1. To separate the subject and the predicate when the sub- 
ject is so long or complex that the meaning of the sentence 
would not be clear without the comma. 

Example. — Many whom you remember as children playing among 
the clover blossoms of our Northern fields, sleep under nameless 
mounds with strange Southern wild flowers blooming over them. 

2. To separate the terms of a couplet, — 

a. When the connective is omitted between them. 

Example: — Then he heard the quick, short commands of the 
officers. 

b. When they are differently limited though they are 
joined by a conjunction. 

Example. — Such songs have power to quiet the restless pulse of 
care, and come like the benediction that follows after prayer. 



APPENDIX 445 

c. When the second term is the same word as the first, 
or means the same thing; also when the second term is added 
to extend or amplify the meaning of the first, or because there 
is doubt as to which is the better term to employ. 

Examples. — He reached the farthest wigwam, reached the lodge 
of Hiawatha. The Saxons made England their headquarters, their 
home. You might call him your captain, or chief. 

3. To separate the terms of a series, — 

a. When the conjunction is omitted throughout. 

Example. — Learn patience, calmness, self-command, disinterested- 
ness, love. 

b. When the conjunction is used between the last two 
terms only. 

Example. — Impetuous, active, fierce, and young, upon the advanc- 
ing foe he sprung. 

c. When the conjunction is used between the terms 
throughout, unless the efifect of rapid enumeration of terms 
is desired. 

Examples. — They wandered in deserts, and in mountains, and in 
dens, and in caves of the earth. Hunger and cold and scorn and pain 
had wasted his form and seared his brain. 

d. When the series consists of couplets whose terms are 
not separated from each other by the comma. 

Example. — I have seen the effects of love and hatred, joy and 
grief, hope and despair. 

4. To precede a single term, couplet, or series, — 

When introduced by such words as namely, as, viz., etc. 

Example.— In the four Gospels, namely, Matthew, Mark, Luke, 
and John, we have the history of our Saviour. 



446 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

5. To set off an adjective, adjective phrase, adjectival 
phrase, participial phrase, or appositional phrase, — 

When not restrictive. ' 

Examples. — With such glad and peaceful images in my heart, I 
traveled along that dreary moor, with the cutting wind in my face, and 
my feet sinking in the snow. Poor Mabel, in her lonely home, sat by 
the window's narrow pane, white in the moonlight's silver rain. Be- 
hind the black wall of the forest, tipping its summit with silver, arose 
the moon. On two strangers, man and maiden, cloaked and furred, the 
firelight shone. 

6. To set off a phrase absolute, — 

a. When it consists of a nominative absolute with a parti- 
ciple depending upon it. 

Example. — Two tests had been passed, the young man succeeding 
■ each time. 

b. When the chief element in the phrase is a verb in the 
infinitive mode. 

Example. — Fame, to quote the language of an ancient chronicler, 
has commemorated the names of their little band. 

c. When the basis of the phrase is a participle. 

Example. — Generally speaking, an author's style is a faithful copy 
of his mind. 

d. When the chief word in the phrase is a verb in the 
imperative mode. 

Example. — Take him all in all, I shall not look upon his like 
again. 

7. To set off an adverb or adverbial phrase, — 

a. When it seems to limit the entire clause rather than 
any particular word in it. 

Example. — Punctuality is, no doubt, a quality of high importance. 



APPENDIX 447 

b. When it is used parenthetically. 

Example. — Beneath it spread, like a green sea, the waveless plain 
of Lombardy. 

8. To set off a parenthetical expression, — 
When it does not constitute a complete clause. 

Example. — A man of more than ordinary intellectual vigor may, 
for want of the faculty of expression, be a cipher in society. 

9. To set off any phrase, — 

When it is out of its natural order, especially when long. 

Examples. — Under an impression so profound, we feel our own 
hearts grow better. From out the darkness where we trod, we gazed 
upon those hills of God. To many, religion is a mere tradition, or a 
momentary feeling. On a small headland of the distant island, an old 
man stood looking out on a desolate waste of rain-beaten sea. 

10. To set off a final phrase, — 

When it is added to express an incidental or after thought. 

Example. — At each pause again broke in the music of his violin, 
with tones of sweetness or of fear. 

11. To set off an adjective clause, — 
When not restrictive. 

Example. — God, who knows all our secret thoughts, will bring 
every secret purpose into judgment. 

12. To set off an adverbial clause, — 

a. When it is transposed; that is, when it comes before 
the word which it limits. 

Example. — When dead of winter comes, how wondrous look the 
hills in their white robes! 

b. When it is not closely joined in sense to the word which 
it limits. 



448 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

Example. — Withhold not good from them to whom it is due, 
when it is in the power of thine hand to do it. 

13. To separate a quoted expression from the words that 
introduce it, — 

When it is direct and constitutes a clause. 

Example. — A celebrated modern writer says, " Take care of the 
minutes, and the hours will take care of themselves." 

14. To separate correlative clauses joined by as or than, — 
When they are long or when the meaning would be un- 
certain without the comma. 

Example. — Better to stem with heart and hand the roaring tide 
of life, than lie, unmindful, on its flowery strand, of God's occasion 
drifting by. 

15. To separate coordinate clauses, — 

When they are closely related in sense, especially when 
they are not joined by a conjunction and not subdivided by a 
comma. 

Example. — The sun is bright, the air is clear, the darting swal- 
lows soar and sing, and from the stately elms I hear the bluebird 
prophesying spring. 

16. To set off a word that is independent by address, to- 
gether with the words that limit it. 

Examples. — Farewell, ye mountains, ye beloved glades, ye lone 
and peaceful valleys, fare ye well! The wind came up out of the sea, 
and said, " O mists, make room for me." 

THE SEMICOLON 

The semicolon is used, — 
1. To separate the terms of a series, — 
a. When they are a series of couplets whose terms are sepa- 
rated by the comma. 



APPENDIX 449 

Example. — There are two classes in society; viz., the rich, the 
poor; the high, the low; the good, the bad. 

b. When they are a series of extended phrases partaking 
of the nature and importance of clauses. 

Example. — He beheld him in the star that sank in beauty behind 
his lonely dwelling; in the sacred orb that flamed on him from his 
midday throne ; in the flower that snapped in the morning breeze ; in 
the lofty pines that defied a thousand whirlwinds. 

2. To separate coordinate clauses, — 

a. When they are not very remotely connected in sense, but 
have no conjunction to join them. 

Example. — They saw not the shadow that walked beside ; they 
heard not the feet with silence shod. 

b. When slightly connected in sense and joined by a con- 
junction. 

Example. — A faithful man shall abound with blessings ; but he that 
maketh haste to be rich shall not be innocent. 

c. When they are, one or more of them, divided into im- 
portant parts by the comma. 

Example. — Speech is silvern, and silence is golden ; speech is 
human, silence is divine. 

THE COLON 

The colon is used, — 
1. To precede a series, — 

a. When it is formally introduced by such expressions as 
thus, these, the following, as follozvs, etc. 

Example. — The following verbs may take a direct and an indirect 
object: buy, sell, play, sing, find, get, lend. 



450 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

b. To separate the chapter number from the verse number 
in a Scripture reference. 

Example. — Heb. 4 : 12. 

THE DASH 

The dash is used, — ■ 

1. To follow the comma preceding a series, — 

When the series is not introduced by any connective ex- 
pressed or understood, but separately paragraphed. 

Example. — Comparison is indicated, — 

1. By changing the form of the adjective. 

2. By changing the word. 

3. By adding other words. 

2. To follow the colon preceding a series, — 

When the series is introduced by some connective ex- 
pressed or understood, and separately paragraphed. 

Example. — Write subjects to the following verbs: — 

Teach, instruct, learn, speak, say, utter, sleep, send. 

3. To set off parenthetical expressions. 

Example. — It was under the influence of impulse — the impulse 
of nature on his own poetic spirit — that Burns went forth singing in 
glory and in joy on the mountain side. 

4. When there is any sudden turn or break in the thought. 

Examples. — Majestically slow the sun goes down in glory — the 
full-orbed autumn sun. And ever and anon came on the still air the 
soft, eternal pulsations of the distant sea — sound mournfulest, most 
mysterious, of all the harpings of nature. To pull down the false, to 
build up the true, and to uphold what there is of the true in the old — 
this shall be our endeavor. 



APPENDIX 451 



QUOTATION MARKS 

Quoted expressions should be inclosed in double quotation 
marks. 

j A quotation included within another quotation should have 
single quotation marks. 

When the quotation is a complete clause, a comma should 
precede it. 

When the quotation is long, emphatic, or formally intro- 
duced, it should be preceded by a colon. 

When the quotation is direct and a complete sentence, the 
first word should begin with a capital letter. 



452 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

I. Systematic Classification of the Parts of Speech 

Substantives 

A substantive is, — 

1. A noun; or a letter, sign, or figure, used merely to rep- 
resent its own name. 

2. A word, phrase, or clause, used in the office of a noun. 

NOUNS PRONOUNS 

Names, of every kind, are Pronouns take the place of 

called nouns. . nouns, by alluding to persons 

A common noun names or things previously named, 

any one of a class. to the speaker, or to one or 

A proper noun distin- more persons spoken to. 

guishes some particular indi- A personal pronoun 

vidual of a class. shows its person by its form. 

A collective noun names A relative pronoun shows 

a collection of objects. the relation of its clause to the 

An abstract noun names word represented by the pro- 

a quality. noun. 

A verbal noun is a parti- An interrogative pro- 

ciple or an infinitive used to noun is used in asking a 

name action, being, or state. question. 

A substantive is said to be, — 

1. In the first person when it represents the speaker, in 
the second person when it represents the person spoken to, 
in the third person when it represents a person or thing 
spoken of. 

2. In the singular number when it means but one, and 
in the plural number when it means more than one. 

3. In the masculine gender when it denotes a male, in the 
feminine gender when it denotes a female, and in the neuter 
gender when it denotes an object that has no sex. 



APPENDIX 453 

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, 
number, and gender, but not necessarily in case. 

A collective noun, as antecedent, must be represented 
by a pronoun in the singular number when the entire collection 
is taken together as a unit ; but when reference is had to the 
individuals that make up the collection, the pronoun must be 
in the plural number. 

When a pronoun represents two or more antecedents 
taken conjointly, it must agree with them in the plural num- 
ber ; but when its antecedents are taken separately, the pronoun 
must agree with the one next to it. 

A noun or a pronoun should be put — 

In the nominative case, — 

When it is the subject of a sentence or clause. 

When used in predicate with the copula. 

When in apposition with any word in the nominative case. 

When independent by address, by exclamation, with a par- 
ticiple or an adjective, or by pleonasm. 

When used after a copulative verb as an attribute of the 
subject. 

When used after the participle of the copula in a verbal 
noun. 

In the possessive case, — 

To denote ownership, kindred, authorship, origin, fitness, 
measure of time, distance, weight, etc. 

When in apposition with any word in the possessive case. 

When subject of an abridged clause, and followed by the 
participle of the copula. 

In the objective case, — 

When it is object of a verb or a participle. 

When object of a preposition. 

When in apposition with any word in the objective case. 



454 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

When it is subject of an infinitive in an abridged clause 
that is object of a preposition. 

When it is attribute of an object after a copulative verb. 

When it is used after a passive copulative verb whose in- 
direct object is made its subject. (See Appendix J,l.) 

Verbs 

A true verb denotes action, being, or state, and predi- 
cates it. 

A regular verb forms its past tense and past participle 
by adding ed to its present indicative ; while an irregular 
verb forms its past tense and past participle in some other 
way. Redundant verbs have both a regular and an irregular 
form. Defective verbs lack some of the principal parts, and 
so cannot be used in all the tenses. 

A transitive verb represents an action as being received 
by something. The active voice represents the subject as 
acting; the passive voice represents its subject as being 
acted upon. 

An intransitive verb does not represent its action as 
being received by anything. It sometimes predicates existence 
or state. 

The copula predicates the existence of some quality or 
state denoted by an adjective or noun that follows it. 

A copulative verb predicates not only the act, being, or 
state denoted by itself, but it also does the work of a copula 
in predicating the action, quality, or state denoted by some 
other word. 

Modes 

Mode is the manner in which the verb predicates. 

The indicative mode represents the act, being, or state as 
actually existing or occurring, or inquires about it. 

The potential mode predicates the power, necessity, duty, 
etc., of its subject to act, to exist, or to be in a certain state. 



APPENDIX 455 

The imperative mode commands, exhorts, or entreats. 

The infinitive mode (so-called) has no power to predi- 
cate, and consequently has no person and number. 

The subjunctive mode is used to express what is doubt- 
ful, contingent, or merely supposed. 

Tenses 

The indicative mode has six tenses ; the potential, four ; the 
imperative, one; the infinitive, two; and the subjunctive, four. 

The simple tenses — past, present, future — are used to 
denote the time indicated by their respective names, and cover 
all time. 

The perfect tenses, as their names denote, represent 
action as completed, — the present perfect, at the time of speak- 
ing; the past perfect, at some point of time in the past; and 
the future perfect, at some point of time in the future. The 
perfect tenses also cover all time. 

Agreement 

The person and number of a verb is the inflection 
(change of form) required by the person and number of its 
subject. 

When the subject of a verb is a collective noun in the 
singular number, the verb must be in the plural number if the 
individuals composing the collection are regarded separately; 
but if the whole collection is taken as a unit, the verb must 
be in the singular number. 

Whenever a verb has two or more subjects taken 
together, it must be in the plural number; but if the sub- 
jects are taken separately, the verb must agree with the one 
next to it. 

In agreement, compare the verb with the pronoun, given 
on page 453. 



456 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

Participles 

Participles assume action, being, or state, but have no 
power to predicate. They are sometimes classed among verbs, 
because they are derived from verbs, and retain much of the 
nature of the verb. In their use, however, they are like ad- 
jectives, being employed to limit nouns and pronouns. 

When a participle is used to name an act, being, or state, 
it is called a participial noun, or a verbal noun. 

A present participle represents its action as present at 
the time denoted by the predicate of its clause. 

A past participle represents its action as past at the time 
denoted by the predicate of its clause. 

A perfect participle represents its action as completed 
at the time denoted by the predicate of its clause. 

The present participle has two forms, — the active and the 
passive. The past participle sometimes has an active meaning 
and sometimes a passive, but its form is always the same as 
that of the present passive. 

The perfect participle has three forms, — the common, the 
progressive, and the passive. Each of these forms assumes 
just what a perfect tense of that form would predicate. 

The infinitive is like the participle in being derived from 
a verb without having the power of predication ; but differs 
from it in its form and in some of its uses. When the in- 
finitive is used as a noun, it is called a verbal noun, like the 
participle. 

Modifiers 

Modifiers are words used to introduce some circumstance 
of quality, condition, time, place, manner, purpose, or cause, 
or in some other way to restrict or extend the application of 
words. 



APPENDIX 



ADJFXTIVES 

A qualifying adjective 

is added to a noun or a pro- 
noun to assume quality or 
condition. With the help of 
a copula, the quality or con- 
dition may be predicated. 

A limiting adjective is 
added to a noun or a pronoun 
to restrict its application in 
some other way than by de- 
noting quality, condition, or 
kind. 

The so-called pronominal 
adjectives, or adjective 
pronouns, are used to limit 
a noun understood, and are 
supposed to represent that 
noun. 

Interrogative adjectives 
are used in asking questions. 



ADVERBS 

An adverb is added to a 
verb, a participle, an adjec- 
tive, or an adverb, to tell 
when, where, how, why, how 
long, how far, or how much. 

A relative adverb, like a 
relative pronoun, shows the 
relation of its clause to the 
word which the clause limits. 

A conjunctive adverb is 
one that has, to some degree, 
the nature of a conjunction. 

Interrogative adverbs 
are used in asking questions. 

A modal adverb modifies 
the manner of assertion as a 
whole, and not the action of 
the predicate. 



Both adjectives and adverbs have a comparative and a 
superlative form for the purpose of denoting comparison. 

Relation Words 



PREPOSITIONS 

A preposition introduces 
a phrase, and shows the rela- 
tion between the word which 
the phrase limits and the sub- 
stantive which forms the es- 
sential element of the phrase. 

The relative pronoun and 



CONJUNCTIONS 

A coordinate conjunc- 
tion is placed between coordi- 
nate elements to show that 
they are equal in rank, and if 
they are dependent, that they 
are alike related to the word 
which they limit. 



458 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



the relative adverb are both 
relation words, but have al- 
ready been defined. 

The copula, also, is a rela- 
tion word, showing the rela- 
tion between the subject and 
whatever is predicated of it. 



A subordinate conjunc- 
tion introduces a clause, 
shows it to be subordinate in 
rank, and generally indicate? 
its use. 

The conjunctive adverb 
has already been described. 



Emotional Words 

Interjections are words used expressly to denote emotion. 



APPENDIX 459 

J. Peculiar Constructions 

1. Objective case after copulative verb in passive 
voice. 

That experience taught us a useful lesson. 
A useful lesson was taught us. 
We were taught a useful lesson. 

In the first sentence above, lesson is the direct object of the 
verb, and us the indirect, or object of the preposition to under- 
stood. In the second sentence, the direct object, lesson, is 
taken for the subject, and the verb is changed to the passive 
voice; but in the third sentence, the indirect object of sentence 
1, us, is made the subject of the verb in the passive voice; but 
the direct object, lesson, although it still receives the action, is 
no part of the subject, — does not belong to it in any sense, — 
and so remains in the objective case. The verb seems to be 
passive in regard to we, but active in regard to lesson. 

2. Abridged clause with being. 

His nationality prevented his election. 

His being a Jew prevented his being elected. 

That he was a Jew prevented that he should be elected. 

By comparing these sentences it will be seen that being a 
Jew and being elected are abridged predicates used as nouns. 
Being elected is a passive participle used as a noun; it is the 
passive voice of the verb, with its power of predication de- 
stroyed. Being a Jew should be parsed together as a noun, 
and then being and Jeiv may be parsed separately. Being is 
the participle of the copula, and Jew is used with the participle 
of the copula in the predicate of an abridged clause, and is 
therefore put in the nominative case. His is a possessive pro- 
noun limiting the verbal nouns being and being elected. In the 
third sentence these verbal nouns are expanded into clauses, to 
show that they are really abridged clauses. 



460 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

/ was not aware that it was he. 
I was not aware of its being he. 

In the second sentence above, being he is a verbal noun, 
object of the preposition of, and limited by the possessive pro- 
noun its; but he is in the nominative case. 

3. Preposition used in predicate to give an intransi- 
tive verb a passive meaning. 

His mates laughed at hint. 
He was laughed at. 

In the first sentence above, the phrase at him, though called 
adverbial, does not modify the verb in regard to time, place, 
manner, cause, or purpose ; it shows the tendency or direction 
of the action, and so much resembles an objective element that 
the object of its preposition may be called the indirect object 
of the verb, or direct object of laughed at regarded as a verb 
phrase. 

In the second sentence the indirect object is made the sub- 
ject of the sentence, but the preposition is retained in the pred- 
icate to show that the person represented by the pronoun 
sustains the same relation to the action as in the preceding sen- 
tence. JVas laughed at may as well be parsed together as an 
intransitive verb or verb phrase, with a meaning somewhat 
like that of a verb in the passive voice. 

4. Group of words in possessive case. 

If the group is complex, the possessive sign is added to the 
noun that comes nearest to the limited noun. Thus : — 

The Earl of Chatham's last speech. 
For my servant David's sake. 
For David my servant's sake. 

If the group be a couplet or a series denoting separate pos- 
session, the possessive sign is added to each term ; but when 
the couplet or series denotes joint possession, the possessive 



APPENDIX 461 

sign is added to the last term only. This principle holds good 
for all the various significations of the apostrophe and s, such 
as possession, authorship, kind, and measure. Thus : — 

Colbum's, White's, and Olney's arithmetic. 
Allen and Gre enough's Latin Grammar. 

5. Verb agreeing with its logical rather than its 
grammatical subject. 

The horse and carriage {the conveyance) is waiting. 

Bread and milk is good food. 

The horse and the carriage are waiting. 

Bread and milk are both good articles of food. 

By noticing the sentences above, it will be seen that when 
two grammatical subjects are so closely united in sense that 
the mind takes them as one, the verb should be in the singular 
number. The subject may also be so emphatically distin- 
guished as to require a verb in the singular number; as, — 

The wife, as well as the husband, was convicted. 
The doctor, and the sexton too, was imprisoned. 
Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory. 

6. Pronoun in the third person, singular number. 

For want of a pronoun in the third singular that can in- 
clude both sexes, the masculine is often used ; as, — 

The teacher should maintain his authority by the mildest 
means possible. 

7. Nominative absolute with a phrase. 

They went out one by one. 

Flake after Rake 

They sink in the dark and silent lake. 

Day by day the sky is cloudless and blue. 

They grew 1 together side by side. 

The sisters' hands were clasped in each other. 



462 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

From an examination of the preceding sentences, it will be 
seen that the nominative absolute is often followed by a phrase 
instead of a participle or an adjective. 

Sometimes this phrase is adverbial, and sometimes adjec- 
tive ; for sometimes it would limit the verb, and sometimes it 
would be used with the copula in predicate, if the phrase 
absolute were converted into a clause. 

The last sentence means the same as if it read, The sisters' 
hands were clasped each in other. Such phrases are not usually 
set off. 



APPENDIX 463 

K. Letter Writing 

The model on page 465 will give some useful hints to 
those who are not familiar with the most approved forms for 
beginning, closing, and directing an ordinary letter. The parts 
requiring particular attention are briefly noticed below : — 

1. The Heading. — This tells where and when the letter 
was written; and if no other instructions are given, it is sup- 
posed to show how a reply is to be directed. It should be 
placed toward the right and about an inch from the top of the 
page, and may consist of one or more lines, according to its 
length and the width of the page. The proper punctuation is 
shown in the model. 

2. The Margin. — Do not forget to leave a fair margin 
on the left hand of each page. It should be from a half inch 
to an inch in width, according to the size of the page, and of 
uniform width from top to bottom. 

3. The Address. — This should be placed at the left of the 
page, next to the margin, and one or two lines below the head- 
ing. It usually consists of some term of honor, affection, or 
relationship, and is commonly punctuated as in the model. 
Some, however, prefer the colon after the last word, and others 
the comma without a dash. 

4. The Subscription. — This consists of the name of the 
writer, called his signature, preceded by some expression of 
respect or personal regard. The different lines of the sub- 
scription should begin each farther to the right than the one 
above it, and the first word of each should have a capital in- 
itial. The punctuation may be learned from the model. 

The full name and the residence of the person addressed 
should then be written at the left and a little below the signa- 
ture, though good usage also allows it to be placed before the 
address, especially in business correspondence. 



464 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

5. The Superscription. — This consists of the name of 
the person to whom the letter is to be sent, written on the en- 
velope, and followed by the name of the town or post of- 
fice and the State where the letter is to be delivered. In 
case of a city, add the name of the street and the house num- 
ber; in case of a small country place, it is well to add the name 
of the county. The name, especially if quite long, should begin 
near the left end of the envelope, and not much above the 
middle. Below the person's name should be the full post- 
office address, with each part on a separate line, and each line 
beginning a little farther to the right than the one above it. 

Great pains should be taken to make every word of the 
superscription so plain that it cannot be mistaken. 

On the opposite page will be found a specimen letter and 
an example of the addressed envelope. This address is suit- 
able for a country place. In the case of a city, place the num- 
ber and name of the street in a separate line above the name 
of the city, and omit the name of the county. Thus: — 

Mr. Benjamin Franklin 
32 Liberty St. 

Philadelphia 

Pennsylvania 

It is both safer and in good taste to write out the name of 
the State in full rather than to abbreviate it. 



APPENDIX 



465 



Specimen Letter 

Battle Creek, Michigan, 

; riday, June n, 1915. 
My dear Father, — 

Accept my most hearty thanks for your kind 
letter, and for the generous supply of means which it inclosed. 
I -was in no need of money, for I still have quite a sum left 
from what you last sent me. 

I prize your letter most of all for the good counsel it con- 
tains, and forjts pledges of confidence in my sincerity. I trust 
your good words will not be lost upon me, etc. 

Your affectionate son, 

William C. Caswell. 
Mr. Leonard P. Caswell, 

Shingle Creek, 

St. Laze. Co., N. Y. 

Superscription 



STAMP 



Mr. Leonard P. Caswell 
Shingle Creek 

St. Laivrencc Co. 
New York 



30 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Abridged Clause 382, 459 

with to be, as, as being . . 385 

Action 

assumed 152 

denoted and predicated in 

one word 81 

modified by groups of 

words 85 

modified by single word . . 83 

named 160 

performed and received . . 

62, 117- 119 

performed by the subject 
and received by the 

object 117 

predicated 63, 64 

Adjective 

comparative form 354 

defined 59 

interrogative 247 

limiting 71, 74 

limiting noun understood 187 
numeral consisting of a 

group of words 191 

parsing of 59, 60, 248 

participial 160 

qualifying 49, 50, 72 

recapitulation of 457 

superlative form .... 259, 356 

Adjective Clause 222, 242 

analysis of 109 

limiting pronoun it 260 

Adjective Element, defined 96 

Adjective Phrase 

defined 95, 96 

denoting material, etc no 

denoting measure in 

denoting origin or author- 
ship 109 

denoting possession 97 

denoting quality 95 

Adverb 

comparative form 354 

conjunctive 253 

parsing of 253 



PAGE 

Adverb (Continued) 

consisting of more than 

one word 157 

defined 83, 1 16 

drop ly by poetic license 179 

parsing of 84 

recapitulation of 457 

relative 234, 235 

Adverbial Clause 209, 221 

analysis of 210 

Adverbial Phrase 

denned 85, 88 

denoting cause or purpose 92 

denoting manner 91 

denoting place and time . . 87 

exercises on 93, 94 

without a preposition 195 

Analysis 

action denoted and predi- 
cated in one word ... 82 

action predicated 63 

adjective clause 223 

adjective phrase 96 

adverbial clause 210 

adverbial phrase 86, 89 

associated conjunctions .. 182 
assuming and predicating 

identity 145 

class assumed and predi- 
cated 140, 141 

class predicated 138 

comparison introduced by 

an adjective 354 

conjunctive adverb 253 

coordinate clauses 201 

copulative verb 374, 

377, 379, 387-389, 392, 395 
correlative clauses 

denoting purpose 365 

joined by as — as 358 

joined by as — so 362 

joined by so — that 361 

joined by in order that 366 

transposed 361 

defined 56 

[467] 



468 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



Analysis (Continued) 

double object ... 383, 389, 393 

emotional expressions . . . 369 

imperative sentence 134 

infinitive mode, common 

form 328 

interjections 193 

interrogative pronouns 246, 252 

interrogative sentence ... 133 

limiting adjective 72 

noun independent by ad- 
dress 192 

of a long sentence 237 

of the couplet 168 

participial construction . . . 152 

passive participle 156 

past perfect potential .... 317 

perfect participle 298 

phrase absolute 339 

phrase in predicate 335 

phrase introduced by like 197 

possessive noun 97 

possessive pronoun 104 

potential mode predicating 

quality, etc 320 

potential mode, progressive 

form . . . ; 322 

present and past potential 

;.'-.. 314, 315 

present perfect indicative 279 
progressive and passive in- 
finitive as verbal noun 

.- 33^ 333 

progressive form, indica- 
tive mode 287 

pronoun as subject 68 

quality assumed and predi- 
cated 57 

relative adverb 234 

relative pronoun as object 

of a preposition 229 

relative pronoun used also 

as an adjective 239 

subjunctive mode 344 

substantive clause 250, 255, 256 

transitive verb 118 

Antecedent: of a Pronoun . . 224 

a collective noun 4 2 $ 

compound 4 2 6 

Apostrophe 181 



Appendix 420- 465 

A. Definition of Terms 420- 425 

B. Laws of Form . . . 426- 429 

C. List of Irregular Verbs 

430- 435 

D. Gender List for Refer- 

ence 436 

E. Conjugation of Verb to 

be 437, 438 

F. Conjugation of Verb to 

see 439- 442 

G. Use of Capital Letters 443 
H. Rules of Punctuation 

444- 451 

I. Systematic Classification 

of Parts of Speech 452- 458 
J. Peculiar Constructions 

459- 462 

K. Letter Writing . . . 463- 465 

Apposition 141, 146 

Articles 

defined 75 

parsing of 76 

use of 77 

As 

introducing simile 358 

joining correlative clauses 357 

parsing of 358 

Being 

in abridged clause 459 

in phrase absolute 340 

in verbal noun 264 

Capital Letters 26, 27, 51, 120, 443 
Case 

nominative 99 

after passive copulative 
verb with indirect ob- 
ject for subject 395 

after the copulative verb 

as retained term . 386, 391 
after the participle or 

copula in verbal noun 114 

as subject 100 

in apposition with nomi- 
native case 141 

in predicate 114 

independent 

by address ,. . 19 2 

by exclamation 193 

by pleonasm 339 



INDEX 



46' 



Case (Continued) 

with a participle or ad- 
jective 337 

objective 106 

after passive copulative 
verb with indirect ob- 
ject for subject 459 

attribute of object after 

copulative verb . . 393, 394 
in apposition with objec- 
tive case 1 114 

object of preposition ... 114 
object of verb or parti- 
ciple 114 

subject of an abridged 
clause that is object of 
a verb or preposition 

114, 385 

possessive 99, 106 

Changing Constructions . . 243 
Class 

assumed 140 

phrases 142- 144 

predicated 137, 140 

Classification of the Parts 
of Speech, Systematic 

• 452- 458 

Clauses 

abridged 382, 459 

adjective 231 

adverbial 209- 222 

conditional 342, 347 

coordinate 178, 201 

correlative 357- 367 

denned 178 

subordinate 210 

substantive 249- 258 

as object 249 

as subject 254 

in predicate and in ap- 
position 256 

introduced by conjunc- 
tive adverb 252, 253 

introduced by interroga- 
tive pronoun 251 

introduced by relative 

adverb 237 

object of preposition . . . 
249, 314 (8), 380 (1) 



Collective Noun 30 

as antecedent 428 

as subject 428 

Colon, Rules for 449, 450 

Comma, Rules for .... 444- 448 
Comparison 

introduced by an adjective 354 

introduced by as 35; 

introduced by like 197 

analysis of 197 

Complex Sentence 214 

Composition / 

how to write' 51 

required 

51,66,71,75,85,90, 104, 
117, 148, 149, 160, 187, 282 
Compound Sentence . . . 200, 214 
Conjugation 

condensed 349- 352 

diagram of 351 

of to be 437, 438 

of to see 439- 442 

old form, are for have . . . 279 

partial 294- 296 

Conjunction 

coordinate 167, 169, 184 

as zvell as 358 

associated 182 

analysis of 184 

parsing of 185 

correlative 183 

parsing of 184, 185 

parsing of 168, 169 

special signification 170, 171 

subordinate 210 

parsing of 

in correlative clause . 358 
in substantive clause . 250 

Conjunctive Adverb 253 

parsing of 253 

Constructions, Changing of 243 
Coordinate 

clauses 178, 201 

punctuation of 202 

phrases 177 

words 166, 175- 177 

Copula 55, 285 

parsing of 

... 60, 63, 64, 131, 321, 335 



470 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



Copulative Verb 373- 39& 

followed by double object 382 
passive voice 

followed by an adjective 386 

analysis of 387 

parsing of 387 

followed by an infinitive 395 

analysis of 395 

parsing of 395 

followed by a noun .... 391 

analysis of 392 

parsing of 392 

predicating accompanying 

action or state ^78 

analysis of 379 

parsing of 379 

predicating accompanying 

state 375 

predicating class 376 

analysis of 377 

parsing of 378 

predicating quality 37 1 

analysis of 374, 375 

parsing of 375 

why so called 373, 374 

Correlative Clauses 

denoting purpose 365 

analysis of 366 

parsing of in order that 366 

joined by as — as 357 

analysis of 358 

parsing of 358 

joined by so — that 360 

analysis of 360 

parsing of so and that . . 361 
joined by than with adjec- 
tive or adverb in com- 
parative form . . . 354, 359 

analysis of 356 

joined by the with an ad- 
verb in the compara- 
tive form 363 

transposed 361 

analysis of 362 

parsing of as and so . . . 362 
Correlative Conjunction 

coordinate 183, 184 

subordinate 357- 367 

Couplet 167 

punctuation of 172 



Dash, Rules for 450 

Definition of Terms . . 420- 425 
Diagram of Tense Forms 

and Participles . 294- 296 
Double Object 

consisting of an infinitive 

with its subject 385 

consisting of a noun or a 
pronoun with an ad- 
jective 382 

analysis of 383 

parsing of 38] 

consisting of two nouns . . 388 

analysis of 389, 390 

parsing of 390 

Each Other 190, 365 

Echo 259 

Either, neither, any, none .... 190 

Ellipsis 187, 188, 372 

Emotional Expressions 

accompanying address . . . 193 

elliptical 372 

sentence 368 

analysis of 369 

parsing of introductory 

word 370 

single word 370 

Emphatic Form 293 

Euphony 157 

Examples, Miscellaneous 399- 419 

Expletive 157 

Figure 

of apostrophe 181 

of metaphor 159, 230 

of metonymy 214 

of personification 119, 193 

of simile 198, 213 

of synecdoche 175 

of pleonasm 339 

Form 

emphatic 293 

exercise 302 

laws of 426-429 

progressive 287 

Future Perfect Tense 

progressive passive ....... 

283, 287, 291, 422 

Future Tense 

predicating action 273 

predicating quality, etc. . . . 274 



INDEX 



471 



Gender 42, 43 

distinguished 45 

list for reference 436 

peculiarities in 44, 45 

Identity, Assuming and Pred- 
icating 145 

Imperative Sentences . . 134- 136 

Infinitive 328- 336 

Initial Letters 26, 27 

Interjection 

denned 193 

punctuation of 193, 194 

Interrogative 

adjectives 247- 249 

pronouns 245- 247 

sentences 133, 136 

Irregular Verbs, List of 430- 435 

Language, Study of 17 

Laws of Form 426- 429 

Letter Writing 463- 465 

Lie, Lay 286 

Lists for Reference 

gender 436 

irregular verbs 430- 435 

peculiarities in number 37- 42 
Metaphor, Figure of.... 159, 230 

Metonymy, Figure of 214 

Mine, Thine, Yours, etc 189 

Miscellaneous Examples . . . 

'.. 399- 419 

Modes 

imperative 136, 326 

indicative 136 

infinitive 

as verbal noun 163, 164, 331 

analysis of 333 

parsing of 332 

common form 328 

analysis of 333 

parsing of 332 

drops to after certain 

verbs 328 

in predicate 334 

parsing of 335 

progressive and passive 

f orrr c 330 

subject of 115 

potential 312- 326 

parsing of 315, 321 

passive form 323 



Modes (Continued) 

progressive form 321 

subjunctive 342 

analysis of 344 

progressive and passive 

forms 348 

when to be used 345 

synopsis of 422 

Modifiers 423, 424 

Name Form of Verb 328 

Naming 

objects 17- 19 

parts of human body 21 

parts of things 20 

persons 24, 25 

places 23, 25 

Noun 19 

abstract 58, 59, 162 

parsing of 162, 335 

class 137 

collective 30 

as antecedent 128 

as subject 428 

common 25 

in apposition 141 

in predicate. . 137-139, 142- 147 
independent 

by address 192, 193 

by pleonasm 339 

with an adjective or 

noun 364 

with a participle 337 

parsing of 59, 60 

participial 161 

possessive 97- 103 

proper 25 

consisting of two or 

more words 27 

used as an adjective . . 144, 145 
Number of Noun .... 28, 31- 37 

lists for reference 37- 41 

peculiarities in 37- 42 

Object of Preposition 89 

Object of Verb 123 

Parsing 

adjective 60 

adjective limiting and qual- 

. ifying 72, 73 

adjective limiting noun un- 
derstood . 188, 



472 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



Parsing (Continued) 

adjective or noun in pred- 
icate with copulative 
verb in passive voice. . 

3$>7, 390, 392 

adverb 84 

article 76 

as 358 

as and so 362 

associated conjunction ... 185 

conjunctive adverb 253 

coordinate conjunction 169, 179 
copula 60, 63, 64, 131, 321, 335 
copula, action word in pred- 
icate 64 

copulative verb... 375, 378, 379 

correlative conjunction ... 184 

defined 59 

double object 383, 390, 394 

emotional expressions .... 370 
in order that in correla- 
tive clause 366 

infinitive mode, common 

form 3 2 9 

infinitive in predicate with 
copulative verb in pas- 
sive voice 395 

interrogative pronoun 246, 252 

like as a preposition 197 

noun 60 

noun and copula 139 

noun in nominative and 

possessive case 100 

noun in predicate with cop- 
ulative verb 37S 

perfect participle 299 

personal pronoun 70 

phrase in predicate 335 

possessive phrase 109 

possessive pronoun ...... 107 

potential mode predicating 

quality 321 

preposition and its object 89 
present and past potential 315 
progressive and past infin- 
itive as verbal noun S3 2 

relative adverb . 236 

relative pronoun .... 226, 239 
relative pronoun used also 

as adjective 241 



Parsing (Continued) 

so — that in correlative 

clause 361 

subordinate conjunction in 

substantive clause .... 

v : 2 5°> 2 55, 257 

transitive verb and ob- 
ject 122, 123 

verb 83 

verb imperative mode .... 135 
verb indicative mode 131 

Participial Phrase 1 5 [ 

Participles 152, 157- 160 

complete classification of 300 

form for writing 301 

formation and uses of .... 308 

parsing of 290 

passive 156 

past 156, 276 

perfect 296- 300 

present active 153, 287 

why so called 152 

with nominative absolute . 337 

Parts of Speech 

classified 452- 458 

defined 59 

Passive Voice 

indicative mode 291 

infinitive mode .......... 330 

potential mode 323 

Past Participle 156 

Past Perfect Tense 

indicative mode .... 280-282 

potential mode 316 

analysis of 317 

Past Tense 121 

Peculiar Constructions 
abridged clause with be- 
ing 459 

agreement of verb with log- 
ical subject 461 

group of words in posses- 
sive case 460 

nominative absolute with 

phrase 461 

objective case after copu- 
lative verb 459 

preposition in predicate . . . 460 
pronoun in third person 
singular 461 



INDEX 



473 



Peculiar Uses of Words 
adverbs drop ly by poetic 

license 179 

all as an adverb 137 

around 137 

as as a sign of apposition 385 

as if 233 

as ivell as 358 

being in phrase absolute 340 

once more 119 

one, other, none 190 

the as correlative with com- 
parative adverb 363 

though 236 

to be, as, as being, used as 

mere connectives 385 

when, where 234, 235 

where as an adjective.... 269 
while as coordinate con- 
junction and adverb. . 233 

Person, defined 70 

Personification, Figure of 

119, 193 

Phrases 

absolute 337~ 339 

analysis of 339 

adjectival 242 

adjective 95, 96, 108- 112 

adverbial 85, 195, 196 

appositional 146, 147 

coordinate i/7 

in predicate 334 

analysis of 335 

parsing of 335 

participial 154- 159 

prepositional 90 

verb '81 

Pleonasm 339 

Plural of Nouns 28- 41 

Possessive Nouns 97-103 

denoting kindred or au- 
thorship 101 

denoting measure 103 

denoting origin or fitness 102 

denoting ownership 97 

distinguishing meaning of 1 13 

parsing of 100 

sign of 97 

Possessive Phrase .... 108- 112 

Possessive Pronoun 104- 107 

limiting a noun understood T89 



Possessive Pronoun (Continued) 

parsing of 107 

Preposition 

becoming an adjective or 

adverb by ellipsis 137, 157 
consisting of more than 

one word 137, 219 

defined 88, 89 

in a phrase 90 

in predicate 460 

parsing of 89, 197, 335 

Present Perfect -Tense 

analysis of 279, 282 

indicative mode 276, 277 

potential mode 312 

Present Tense 121, 308 

Progressive Form 

indicative mode .... 287- 290 

infinitive mode 330- 335 

potential mode 321 

analysis of 322 

Pronoun 67, 191 

agreement with antecedent 224 

emphatic 1 1 j. 

interrogative 245 

limiting noun understood 189 

parsing of 226, 241, 246 

personal ..... 70, 114, 115, 191 

possessive 104- 107 

reflexive 114 

relative 224 

as object 225 

as object of preposition 229 

as subject 224 

compound 239, 240 

in possessive case 228 

representing a noun un- 
derstood 240 

used also as an adjective 239 
Punctuation 

adjective clause 224, 447 

adverbial clause 216, 447 

adverbial elements . . . 446, 447 
appositional word and 

phrase 146 

coordinate clauses 

• : I79-i8i, 448, 449 

coordinate phrases . . 177, 445 
correlative clauses . . . 365, 448 

couplet 172, 444 

echo 259, 450 



474 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



Punctuation ( Continued ) 

emotional expressions . . . 372 
expressions independent by 
address, exclamatory 

: 193, 448 

parenthetical expressions.. 

• • • : 447, 450 

participial phrase 154, 155, 446 

phrase absolute 338, 446 

quoted expressions . . 448, 451 

rules of 444- 451 

Scripture reference 450 

series 173, 445, 44$- 450 

sudden turn in thought. 450 
Qualities 

assumed 52 

classified 50 

defined 49 

modified 116 

naming of 160, 161 

predicated 52 

predicated by a copulative 

verb 373 

shown by groups of words 95 

Quotation Marks 451 

Relation Words 424 

Relative Adverb 234- 238 

parsing of 236 

Relative Pronoun (see Pro- 
noun) 
Retained Term or Object . . 

386, 391 

Reviews 
examples 

class 265 

coordinate clauses 267 

interrogative sentences . 266 

participles 261 

relative adverbs 270 

relative pronouns 268 

substantive clauses .... 268 

verbal noun 262 

exercises 311, 396- 398 

miscellaneous 148, 259-261, 284 

questions 46-48, 66 f 

67, 79, 80, 126-128, 148- 
151, 165, 166, 185-187, 

198, 199, 204-209, 242, 243 

synoptical 202-209, 270 

Semicolon, Rules for . . 448, 449 



Sentence 54 

complex 214 

compound 200, 214 

declarative 130 

imperative 134- 136 

interrogative 133, 136 

Series 167 

punctuation of 173 

Shall and Will, distinguished 

303- 308 

Should and Would, distin- 
guished 305 

Simile, Figure of 198, 213, 230 

Sit, Set 286 

Solemn Style 

.... 277, 282, 296, 437- 442 

State, or Condition 78 

Subject and Predicate . .53, 54 
Subject of an Abridged 

Clause 382 

Subordinate Clause 210 

Substantive 188 

Substantive Clause (see 

Clause) 
Superlative Form of the 

Adjective 259, 356 

Synecdoche, Figure of 175 

Tense Forms 

general description of 347- 349 
model for correcting 278, 280 

model for writing 294 

of the verb to be 285 

required by thou 296 

sit, set, lie, lay 283 

Tenses 

formation and uses of 282, 328 

future 273- 275 

future perfect 283 

past 121 

past perfect 280, 28T 

present 121, 308 

present perfect . . 276, 277, 279 
Terms, Definition of . . 420- 425 

Than 354-356, 359 

Thought Gems 22, 29, 6i 

Transitive Verb 122 

Verb 

agreement with logical sub- 
ject 46? 

copulative 373- 398 



INDEX 



475 



Verb (Continued) 

defective 454 

defined 81 

exercises on 124- 126 

form 287- 296 

intransitive 124 

irregular, list of .... 430- 435 

parsing of 

83, 127, 315, 321, 329, 336 
person and number of 

128- 132 

with compound subject 428 
phrase 81 



Verb (Continued) 

principal parts . . 276, 430- 435 

redundant 454 

regular and irregular 120, 121 
tense (see Tense and Tense 
Forms) 

transitive 122 

voice 122, 123, 291 

Verbal Noun 

infinitive 163, 164 

" parsing ^ of 329, 332, ^87 

participial 161 

Word of Euphony 157 



Treatment Date. Oct. 2006 

Cranberry Towns*, PA 16066 
(724)779-2111 






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